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Jurassic Park, a book by Michael Crichton, with a film version directed by Steven Spielberg, revolves around the resurrection of dinosaurs via genetic engineering. Scientists and enthusiasts have brought up a number of issues with their facts and feasibility. For the feature film based on this book, see Jurassic Park (film). ... Michael Crichton, pronounced [1], (born October 23, 1942) is an American author, film producer, film director, and television producer. ... Jurassic Park is a 1993 science fiction film directed by Steven Spielberg, based on the novel of the same name by Michael Crichton. ... Steven Allan Spielberg KBE (born December 18, 1946)[1] is an American film director, producer and screenwriter. ... Orders & Suborders Saurischia Sauropodomorpha Theropoda Ornithischia Thyreophora Ornithopoda Marginocephalia Dinosaurs were vertebrate animals that dominated the terrestrial ecosystem for over 160 million years, first appearing approximately 230 million years ago. ... Elements of genetic engineering Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that are applied to the direct manipulation of an organisms genes. ...

Halfway through the original text, characters John Hammond and Henry Wu have a discussion. Wu says that they could and should make better dinosaurs. Hammond scoffs at the idea, saying that they have real dinosaurs; who would want more? Wu's reply is that they should not bother with reality because the people coming to see the Jurassic Park do not want reality, they want their expectations. The following is a list of characters from Michael Crichtons novels Jurassic Park and The Lost World. ... Henry Wu is a character in the novel Jurassic Park who helps create the Dinosaurs. ...

It is also worth noting that many of the dinosaur species depicted in the film did not actually live in the Jurassic period. The Jurassic Period is a major unit of the geologic timescale that extends from about 199. ...

Dinosaurs

Velociraptor

Velociraptor as portrayed in the movie Jurassic Park, at Universal Studios. Note large size and incorrect hand posture.

Velociraptor mongoliensis compared in size to a human.

The raptors in the novel, following through to the film raptors, were larger than the species going by the name because during the writing of the novel, a previously discovered dinosaur named Deinonychus (closely related to Velociraptor, but larger) was renamed as a Velociraptor species by some scientists, notably Gregory S. Paul.^[1] Crichton wrote his novel based on the idea of a human sized raptor, but after the publication—when the movie was already in production—the idea of Deinonychus being a Velociraptor species was dropped. Jurassic Park is a 1993 science fiction film directed by Steven Spielberg, based on the novel of the same name by Michael Crichton. ... This article is about the American media conglomerate. ... Image File history File links Vraptor-scale. ... Image File history File links Vraptor-scale. ... Species D. antirrhopus (type) Ostrom, 1969 Deinonychus (pronounced ) (Greek δεινος, terrible and ονυξ/ονυχος, claw) was a genus of carnivorous dromaeosaurid dinosaur. ... Species V. mongoliensis Osborn, 1924 (type) Velociraptor (IPA: ; meaning swift thief) is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur that existed approximately 83 to 70 Ma (million years ago) during the later part of the Cretaceous Period. ... Gregory S. Paul (born 1954) is a freelance paleontologist, author and illustrator. ...

During the movie's production, the effects supervisors acknowledged that the Velociraptor featured in the movie were sized identically to the larger Deinonychus. However, during the filming paleontologists came across a larger dromaeosaurid species named Utahraptor and the larger raptors remained, even though Utahraptor was substantially larger (21 feet long) than most of the movie's raptors. It should be noted, also, that at the start of the film a Velociraptor skeleton is uncovered in Montana - no examples of the dinosaur have been uncovered in the USA (although both Deinonychus and Utahraptor are American dinosaurs). The fossil skeleton is similarly inaccurately large. It is possible that the velociraptors in the movie are re-classified Deinonychus, though in the book they are said to be Velociraptor mongoliensis. Genera Achillobator Adasaurus Bambiraptor Cryptovolans Dromaeosaurus Deinonychus Gracilraptor Microraptor Pyroraptor Saurornitholestes Sinornithosaurus Utahraptor Variraptor Velociraptor Among the dinosaurs, the Dromaeosaurids or Dromaeosauridae (running lizards) were fast and agile dominant carnivores throughout the Cretaceous period. ... Species U. ostrommaysorum (Kirkland, Gaston & Burge, 1993) (type) Utahraptor (meaning Utah thief) is the largest known member of the theropod dinosaur family Dromaeosauridae, and dates from the upper Barremian stage of the Early Cretaceous period (132-119 million years ago). ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... Species V. mongoliensis Osborn, 1924 (type) Velociraptor (IPA: ; meaning swift thief) is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur that existed approximately 83 to 70 Ma (million years ago) during the later part of the Cretaceous Period. ...

The high intelligence of the film's Velociraptor is considered somewhat unlikely by scientists, given the relative size of their brains and comparisons with modern animals.^[2]

It is certain that Velociraptor had feathers.^[3] Both the film and novel dinosaurs have scales, rather than feathers; however, both were created before the discovery of feathered dinosaurs closely related to Velociraptor (e.g. Microraptor).^[4][5] In Jurassic Park III the raptor was remodelled and small feathers on the male's heads were included, while still looking similar to the original design. Closeup on a single white feather A feather is one of the epidermal growths that forms the distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on a bird. ... Species (type) Xu et al, 2003 Microraptor (small thief) is a genus of small, dromaeosaurid dinosaur known from well-preserved fossil remains recovered from Liaoning, China, and dating from the early Cretaceous Period (Barremian stage), 130-125. ... Jurassic Park III is a 2001 film that is the third film as part of the Jurassic Park franchise. ...

As with other bipedal dinosaurs in the films, the hands of Velociraptor are depicted with the palms facing down and backwards, but this would have been anatomically impossible for the real animals, as their forearm bones (ulna and radius) could not rotate in this way. Instead, their palms would have faced each other, like a person about to applaud.^[5] The ulna (Elbow Bone) [Figs. ... This article is about an authentication, authorization, and accounting protocol. ... Applause (Latin applaudere, to strike upon, clap) is primarily the expression of approval by the act of clapping, or striking the palms of the hands together, in order to create noise; generally any expression of approval. ...

Procompsognathus

The Procompsognathus are given several attributes in the novels that cannot be determined from the fossil evidence to date. They are presented as living and hunting in large groups; as scavengers and coprophagists (eaters of feces), useful in keeping the park clean of sauropod excrement; and as secreting a venom described as similar to that of a cobra, although more primitive. This ability to incapacitate their prey is absent in the films, where they are dropped in favour of Compsognathus. Binomial name Procompsognathus triassicus Fraas, 1913 Paleo Template Project Life-sized model of Procompsognathus Triassicus Procompsognathus was once thought to be a small, speedy theropod dinosaur. ... For a person who scavenges, see Waste picker. ... Coprophagia is the consumption of feces, from the Greek copros (feces) and phagein (eat). ... Horse feces Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animals digestive tract expelled through the anus (or cloaca) during defecation. ... Families Brachiosauridae Camarasauridae Cetiosauridae Diplodocidae Euhelopodidae Nemegtosauridae Titanosauridae Vulcanodontidae Sauropoda, the sauropods, are a suborder or infraorder of the saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs. ... Egyptian Cobra, Naga haje This article is about snakes. ... Binomial name Compsognathus longipes Wagner, 1859 Compsognathus // meaning elegant jaw (Greek kompsos/κομψος meaning elegant, refined or dainty and gnathos/γναθος meaning jaw) was a small bipedal carnivorous theropod dinosaur, the size of a chicken that lived in the late Jurassic Period of what is now Europe, with fossil finds from Germany...

In reality, Procompsognathus is known from a single partial skeleton from the Late Triassic of Germany, with a partial skull that may belong to it or, more likely, an early relative of modern crocodilians.^[6][7] Because only one individual is known, there is no direct evidence that it lived in groups; however, related animals such as Coelophysis and Megapnosaurus have been found in groups of numerous individuals, such as at Ghost Ranch.^[7] As there are no uncontroversial remains of the head of Procomposognathus, its diet cannot be inferred from the form of its teeth and jaws; other coelophysoids are seen as carnivores with skull adaptations that may have been advantageous when handling small prey.^[7] Finally, aside from a possible theropod tooth from the Late Cretaceous of Baja California with grooving similar to that found on the teeth of venomous snakes and lizards,^[8] there is no evidence for venom secretion in dinosaurs, and scientists consider it unlikely.^{[citation needed]} The Late Triassic (also known as Upper Triassic, or Keuper) is the third and final of three epochs of the Triassic period. ... Groups see taxonomy The Crocodylomorpha are an important group of archosaurs that include the living crocodilians and their extinct relatives. ... black: range of Crocodilia Families Gavialidae Alligatoridae Crocodylidae Crocodilia is an order of large reptiles that appeared about 84 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous Period (Campanian stage). ... Species C. bauri (Cope, 1887) (type) Synonyms Rioarribasaurus Hunt & Lucas, 1991 ?Megapnosaurus Ivie, Slipinski, & Wegrzynowicz, 2001 One of the earliest known dinosaurs, Coelophysis (see-low-FYS-iss) meaning hollow form in reference to its hollow bones (Greek κοιλος/koilos meaning hollow and φυσις/physis meaning form) is a small, carnivorous biped from... Species (type) Synonyms Syntarsus Raath, 1969 Megapnosaurus (big dead lizard) was a dinosaur of the theropod family coelophysidae, formerly called Syntarsus (named by Raath, 1969). ... The Ghost Ranch is a 21,000-acre retreat and education center run by the Presbyterian church, close to the village of Abiquiu in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. ... Species See text. ... Families See text Theropods (beast foot) are a group of bipedal, primarily carnivorous dinosaurs, belonging to the saurischian (lizard-hip) family. ... Geography of the US in the Late Cretaceous Period Late Cretaceous (100mya - 65mya) refers to the second half of the Cretaceous Period, named after the famous white chalk cliffs of southern England, which date from this time. ... Location within Mexico Municipalities of Baja California Country Capital Municipalities 5 Largest City Tijuana Government  - Governor José Guadalupe Osuna Millán (PAN)  - Federal Deputies PAN: 8  - Federal Senators Alejandro González (PAN) Rafael Díaz (PAN) Fernando Castro (PRI) Area Ranked 12th  - Total 69,921 km² (26,996. ...

Dilophosaurus

Dilophosaurus as it appears in Jurassic Park, Universal Studios.

The movie Dilophosaurus stands about 1.2 meters (4 ft) tall^[9], while its real-life counterparts measured on the order of 6 meters (20 ft) long and 1.4 meters (4.5 ft) tall at the hips.^[10] This was a deliberate deviation from accuracy for stylistic purposes, and to differentiate it from the Velociraptors.^[9] It also has a totally speculative frill like the Australian frill-necked lizard. The novel's version is full-sized and lacks the frill. Both eject a potent, blinding venom in both their bite and their spit, like a spitting cobra, and use it to hunt; the novel acknowledges this as Crichton's creative license not suggested by fossil evidence.^[11] This article is about the American media conglomerate. ... Species  ? Dilophosaurus was a theropod dinosaur from the Early Jurassic Period. ... This article is about the unit of length. ... A foot (plural: feet or foot;[1] symbol or abbreviation: ft or, sometimes, ′ – a prime) is a unit of length, in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is the sixth-largest country in the world, the only country to occupy an entire continent, and the largest in the region of Australasia/Oceania. ... Binomial name Gray, 1827 The Frill-necked Lizard, or Frilled Lizard also known as the Frilled Dragon, (Chlamydosaurus kingii) is so called because of the large ruff of skin which usually lies folded back against its head and neck. ... Juvenile Red Spitting Cobra, Naja pallida Red Spitting Cobra Spitting cobra refers to any one of several species of cobras that have the ability to spit or eject venom from their mouth when defending themselves against predators. ... This snapping turtle is trying to make a meal of a Canada goose, but the goose is too wary. ...

Brachiosaurus

The Brachiosaurus in the movie is shown to be chewing its food with a side to side motion of its lower jaw. In reality, it couldn't feed like this. Brachiosaurid skulls and jaws were limited to up and down motions, and their teeth were specialized for shearing and cropping plant material. Other sauropods, such as diplodocoids, could move their jaws backward and forward, but were probably using this motion to strip branches, not to chew plants.^[12] Instead of processing food in the mouth, sauropods probably relied on taking in as much food as possible and processing it farther down the digestive tract, either through gastroliths (rocks swallowed and used for grinding in a gizzard-like organ; note however that this hypothesis, while common in the popular literature, is now considered unlikely in sauropods),^[13] or simply by digestion through fermentation by microorganisms.^[14] Species (type) ?B. (Giraffatitan) brancai Brachiosaurus (IPA: ) meaning Arm Lizard, from the Greek brachion/βραχιων meaning arm and sauros/σαυρος meaning lizard, was a genus of sauropod dinosaur which lived during the Late Jurassic Period. ... Families Amphicoelias Rebbachisauridae Amazonsaurus Suuwassea Diplodocidae Dicraeosauridae Diplodocoidea was a superfamily of sauropod dinosaurs, which included some of the longest animals of all time, including slender giants like Supersaurus, Diplodocus, Apatosaurus, and Amphicoelias. ... Gastroliths (stomach stones or gizzard stones) are rocks, which are or have been held inside the digestive tract of an animal. ... Duck gizzards The gizzard , also referred to as the ventriculus, gastric mill, and gigerium, is an organ in the digestive tract found in birds, reptiles, earthworms, some fish, and other creatures. ...

Additionally, the Brachiosaurus head is shown much larger than its actual size in an up-close shot when Dr. Alan Grant, Tim Murphy and Alexis Murphy try to feed it. In the other shots of Brachiosaurus the head size is proportionate to the body.

Tyrannosaurus

Tyrannosaurus Rex as it appears in Jurassic Park, Universal Studios.

The movie's theory is that the Tyrannosaurus rex would be unable to see someone if they were to remain still (this was explained in the novel as being another side effect of the splicing of frog DNA with that of the dinosaurs); however, evidence has shown T. rex to have had high visual acuity and binocular vision.^[15] Some argue that it would still be able to smell them regardless.^[16] In the sequel novel, The Lost World, it is suggested that the Tyrannosaurus can in fact see inanimate objects, and was actually not hungry. In fact, a character who specifically attempted this technique dies when the T. rex nudges him to see if he was there as Malcolm mentions that he was listening to "the wrong scientists."^[17][18] For the feature film based on this book, see Jurassic Park (film). ... This article is about the American media conglomerate. ... Binomial name Tyrannosaurus rex Osborn, 1905 Synonyms Manospondylus gigas Dynamosaurus imperiosus Dinotyrannus megagracilis Nanotyrannus lancensis? Tyrannosaurus (IPA pronunciation or ; from the Greek τυραννόσαυρος, meaning tyrant lizard) is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur. ... Traditional Snellen chart used for visual acuity testing. ... Binocular vision is vision in which both eyes are used synchronously to produce a single image. ... The Lost World is a novel by Michael Crichton, published in 1995 by Ballantine Books. ...

Tyrannosaurus is also shown as being able to keep pace with a jeep travelling at considerable speed; it is debated within the palaeontological community whether a T. rex could even achieve this speed, much less maintain it.^[19] Anatomically, its short forelimbs would be unable to cushion an impact if it were to fall at speed; this could potentially be fatal. Animators at Industrial Light and Magic were forced to use optical illusions in order to make the Tyrannosaurus appear to convincingly run at that speed.^[20] Industrial Light & Magic original logo, designed by Drew Struzan Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) is a motion picture special visual effects company, founded in May 1975 by George Lucas and owned by Lucasfilm Ltd. ...

Spinosaurus

Spinosaurus as it appears in Jurassic Park III, Universal Studios.

The Spinosaurus in Jurassic Park 3 was, although shorter, stronger than the real animal. Also, its teeth are very straight, conical and crocodilian in reality; but they are hooked and serrated in the movie. Species Stromer, 1915 (type) ? Russell, 1996 Spinosaurus (meaning spine lizard) is a genus of theropod dinosaur which lived in what is now North Africa, from the Albian to early Cenomanian stages of the Cretaceous Period, about 100 to 93 million years ago. ... Jurassic Park III is a 2001 film that is the third film as part of the Jurassic Park franchise. ...

Pachycephalosaurus

The Pachycephalosaurus in The Lost World: Jurassic Park was downsized. Surprisingly, in Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis, the dinosaur was of correct size. It is possible that the pachys which are seen in The Lost World are juveniles. Species P. wyomingensis (Gilmore, 1931) (type) Synonyms Tylosteus Leidy, 1872 Pachycephalosaurus (meaning thick headed lizard, from Greek pachy-/παχυ- thick, cephale/κεφαλη head and saurus/σαυρος lizard) was a dinosaur of the family Pachycephalosauridae. ... The Lost World: Jurassic Park is a 1997 movie which is a sequel to the blockbuster Jurassic Park. ... Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis is a video game for the PC, Xbox, and Playstation 2 based on the novel and film series Jurassic Park. ...

Stegosaurus

The Stegosaurus in The Lost World: Jurassic Park was almost twice the size of the real animal. Species Marsh, 1877 (type) Marsh, 1887 Gilmore, 1914 Stegosaurus (IPA: ) is a genus of stegosaurid armoured dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period (Kimmeridgian to Early Tithonian) in what is now western North America. ... The Lost World: Jurassic Park is a 1997 movie which is a sequel to the blockbuster Jurassic Park. ...

Other reptiles

Pterosaurs

Like the Cearadactylus in the novel, the Pteranodon in Jurassic Park III is interpreted as aggressive and able to pick a teenager up with its feet (a similar scene was planned for the climax of Jurassic Park 2, but omitted after palaeontological advisors on the production declared that this would not have been possible). However, both pterosaur genera were thought to have eaten fish,^[21] and were incapable of grasping with their feet. In reality it is unlikely a Pterosaur of any kind would have either the strength or motive to lift up a person. Also, despite the fact that the name Pteranodon means 'winged without teeth' or 'winged toothless', the Pteranodon in Jurassic Park 3 have small teeth in their bills. Cearadactylus (ceara finger) was a medium-sized pterosaur from Mid-Cretaceous Brazil. ... Species (type) Pteranodon (from Greek πτερ- wing and αν-οδων toothless), from the Late Cretaceous (santonian-campanian, 85-82 million years ago) of North America (Kansas, Alabama, Nebraska, Wyoming, South Dakota) was one of the largest pterosaur genera, with a wingspan of up to 9 m (30 feet). ... Jurassic Park III is a 2001 film that is the third film as part of the Jurassic Park franchise. ... The Lost World: Jurassic Park is a 1997 movie which is a sequel to the blockbuster Jurassic Park. ... Suborders Pterodactyloidea Rhamphorhynchoidea * Pterosaurs (, from the Greek πτερόσαυρος, pterosauros, meaning winged lizard, often referred to as pterodactyls, from the Greek πτεροδάκτυλος, pterodaktulos, meaning winged finger ) were flying reptiles of the clade Pterosauria. ...

Other issues

Dennis Nedry stealing DNA tubes. Incorrect spelling of Tyrannosaurus and Nedry's lack of cold protection in handling extremely cold substances are visible.

During a scene in the movie where traitorous park programmer Dennis Nedry steals the dinosaur DNA, some of the tubes on which the dinosaurs' names are printed have them spelled incorrectly, including Tyrannosaurus and Stegosaurus, as Tyranosaurus and Stegasaurus, respectively. The scene also shows Nedry opening up a liquid nitrogen-filled cryogenic container and handling the supercooled tubes without thermal gloves. Doing this can be quite painful and causes severe frostbite, but nonetheless can be done for very brief periods, as shown. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (846x464, 37 KB)This screenshot shows Dennis Nedry stealing the DNA sequences, notably the Velociraptor one. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (846x464, 37 KB)This screenshot shows Dennis Nedry stealing the DNA sequences, notably the Velociraptor one. ... In computing, a programmer is someone who does computer programming and develops computer software. ... The following is a list of characters from Michael Crichtons novels Jurassic Park and The Lost World. ... Species T. rex (type) Osborn, 1905 Synonyms Manospondylus Cope, 1892 Dynamosaurus Osborn, 1905  ?Nanotyrannus Bakker, Williams & Currie, 1988 Stygivenator Olshevsky, 1995 Dinotyrannus Olshevsky, 1995 Tyrannosaurus (pronounced IPA: , meaning tyrant lizard) is a genus of theropod dinosaur. ... Species Marsh, 1877 (type) Marsh, 1887 Gilmore, 1914 Stegosaurus (IPA: ) is a genus of stegosaurid armoured dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period (Kimmeridgian to Early Tithonian) in what is now western North America. ... A tank of liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a temperature of about -150 Celsius). ... Cryogenics is the study of very low temperatures or the production of the same, and is often confused with cryobiology, the study of the effect of low temperatures on organisms, or the study of cryopreservation. ... Supercooling is the process of chilling a liquid below its freezing point, without its becoming solid. ... Example of a thermal column between the ground and a cumulus This article is about the atmospheric phenomenon. ... This article is about a medical condition. ...

In the scene where a baby dinosaur hatches from an egg in the laboratory, Dr. Grant asks Dr. Wu, "What species is this?" Dr. Wu replies, "It's a Velociraptor." This is not strictly accurate: Velociraptor, by itself, is the genus, not the species, as it would need the specific descriptor mongoliensis appended to give the species name, in full, Velociraptor mongoliensis (or, if the raptors were Deinonychus, Deinonychus antirrhopus). Species V. mongoliensis Osborn, 1924 (type) Velociraptor (IPA: ; meaning swift thief) is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur that existed approximately 83 to 70 Ma (million years ago) during the later part of the Cretaceous Period. ... For other uses, see Genus (disambiguation). ... Latin name redirects here. ...

A similar issue occurs in the restaurant scene in the movie, in which Dr. Grant describes dinosaurs and man as "two species". As about 700 species of dinosaur, not including birds, have been discovered, dinosaurs and man are some 701 species. Orders Saurischia    Sauropodomorpha    Theropoda Ornithischia Dinosaurs are giant reptiles that dominated the terrestrial ecosystem for most of their 165-million year existence. ... This article is about adult human males. ...

Biotechnological background

An insect trapped in amber, similar to those discussed in Jurassic Park

The dinosaur DNA is extracted from fossilized mosquitoes, and this small amount is then amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This has been done before, for example with a Cretaceous weevil in Cano et al. (1993) (no dinosaur DNA was found). An insect trapped in amber. ... An insect trapped in amber. ... For other uses, see Amber (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fossil (disambiguation). ... “PCR” redirects here. ...

There are some problems with this approach:

• The DNA featured in the movie is shown coming from a Dominican amber mine, though this mine is never stated to be the sole source. The novel indicates sources are global as Hammond's widespread purchasing and stockpiling of amber comes under scrutiny. Dominican amber is 10 million years to 30 million years old,^[22] when dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago.
• None of the dinosaurs featured in the movie are known to have existed in the Dominican Republic 65 million years ago (though, again, whether that mine is the only source for DNA is unknown).
• The mosquito had to have had just one species of dinosaur as its food source to avoid a mix-up.
• The scene featuring a close-up of the mosquito clearly shows fuzzy antennae, meaning the particular insect is male. Only female mosquitoes, however, suck blood.
• It is unknown which dinosaur the sample contains. It would be impossible to tell which species it is, because the DNA sequences would fit somewhere between that of birds and crocodiles. The book does address this, stating that they "just grow it and find out", to mathematician and chaos theorist Ian Malcolm's annoyance.
• The dinosaur DNA has to be correct (it has to contain every chromosome) and should contain no sequence gaps. The book and movie did address this issue, however, and had the scientists use frog DNA to compensate for the gaps in the dinosaur DNA. However, this causes a problem, as the dinosaurs are then able to change sex (as the frogs from which the DNA was obtained were able to do) and reproduce, thus furthering the problems leading to the park's collapse.
• The DNA is mixed with mosquito, bacterial, and viral DNA. Although PCR is very specific, it is sensitive to contamination, and if the wrong primers are used, it will also amplify the other DNA.
• Because DNA is broken down by nucleases in the mosquito gut, the mosquito would have to be preserved immediately after feeding; this would be problematic for the park's scientists, although it would explain the lack of mass contamination in the individual samples.

Furthermore, in the fossilization process, molecules are altered. Nevertheless, amber is the best preservative, because organic material is preserved. But DNA cannot survive completely without gaps for tens or hundreds of millions of years. Dominican Amber differentiates itself from Baltic amber by the fact that it is nearly always transparent and has the highest amount of fossil enclosures. ... The Miocene Epoch is a period of time that extends from about 23. ... The Miocene Epoch is a period of time that extends from about 23. ... For other uses, see Bird (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Crocodile (disambiguation). ... Leonhard Euler, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of mathematics. ... For other uses, see Chaos Theory (disambiguation). ... The following is a list of characters from Michael Crichtons novels Jurassic Park and The Lost World. ... For information about chromosomes in genetic algorithms, see chromosome (genetic algorithm). ... “PCR” redirects here. ... A nuclease is an enzyme capable of cleaving the phosphodiester bonds between the nucleotide subunits of nucleic acids. ...

Tens of thousands of DNA base pairs were recently sequenced from 40,000-year-old skeletal remains of cave bears without using PCR, establishing that, in principle, large-scale genomic sequencing of fossilized remains is possible. Of course, the remains used in this study are orders of magnitude younger than anything from the dinosaur era, and the technique might not extend to those creatures.

In the book the gaps in the DNA are filled by hybridizing the DNA with either bird, lizard, or frog DNA. In the movie, only frog DNA is used. This is extremely difficult, as one would need to know which dinosaur genes are homologous with frog genes. The use of frog genes was a plot device, to allow some females to change sex and breed nevertheless (although natural sex change is also possible in some more advanced vertebrates). This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... In biology, homology is any similarity between structures that is due to their shared ancestry. ... A plot device is an element introduced into a story to solely to advance or resolve the plot of the story. ... Typical classes Petromyzontidae (lampreys) Placodermi - extinct Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Acanthodii - extinct Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths) Dipnoi (lungfish) Amphibia (amphibians) Reptilia (reptiles) Aves (birds) Mammalia (mammals) Vertebrata is a subphylum of chordates, specifically, those with backbones or spinal columns. ...

The dinosaurs were genetically altered so they could not produce lysine, forcing them to depend on lysine supplements provided by the park's veterinary staff. Most vertebrates cannot produce lysine by default as it is an essential amino acid. An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to humans), and therefore must be supplied in the diet. ...

The movie states that all dinosaurs are female because all vertebrate embryos are inherently female, requiring an extra hormone at the right phase to make them male. This is not technically true. Vertebrate embryos are undifferentiated, possessing organs that can grow into either male or female reproductive systems. In mammals, at a certain developmental stage the Y chromosome triggers a flood of testosterone, causing the fetus to develop into a male. If, for some reason this doesn't happen, the fetus will develop as an XY Female (See Swyer syndrome). Birds and reptiles (and presumably, dinosaurs) don't use Y Chromosomes in this way. In fact, they seem to use an opposite system with females possessing a W chromosome and a Z chromosome and males possessing two Z Chromosomes. In the scenario presented in Jurassic Park, it seems likely that all the dinosaurs in the park would have been functional males or sterile males possessing an extra chromosome (See Hermaphrodite). The human Y chromosome is one of two sex chromosomes, it contains the genes that cause testis development, thus determining maleness. ... Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. ... Swyer syndrome, or XY gonadal dysgenesis, is a type of female hypogonadism in which no functional gonads are present to induce puberty in an otherwise normal girl whose karyotype is then found to be XY. Her gonads are found to be nonfunctional streaks. ... The ZW sex-determination system is a system that birds, some fishes, and some insects (including butterflies and moths) use to determine the sex of their offspring. ... Z chromosome: A sex chromosome in certain animals, such as chickens, turkeys, and moths. ... For other uses, see Hermaphrodite (disambiguation). ...

The next step would be bringing the DNA strands to expression. For that, one would need to inject the dinosaur DNA into the nucleus of a fertilized egg cell of a close relative of dinosaurs (birds or crocodiles, not frogs). This technique is based on reproductive cloning, which was used to clone Dolly. In the movie, ostrich eggs are used for this purpose. However, the development of an embryo is regulated by hormones in the egg/uterus and the environment. These (bird or crocodilian) hormones need to have the same effect as their original dinosaurian counterparts. For that, they have to be able to recognize particular pieces of dinosaur DNA, a currently impossible task. New research in plastics, however, has allowed for the creation of synthetic eggs such as those that were used in the book.^{[citation needed]} In the book Henry Wu claims that egg yolk is nothing but a growth medium that can be created in a laboratory. However, if it were this simple, an embryo could just be put into such a medium and left to grow ¹⁶ (A scene in the third movie seems to show that some embryos were placed in tanks and that the scientists achieved some success because the embryos did grow big enough to be visible^{[citation needed]}.) Extra hormones are needed from the original parent specimen, however, or constructed precisely from using the genome in order for the embryo to flourish. HeLa cells stained for DNA with the Blue Hoechst dye. ... Reproductive cloning is a form of artificial reproduction technique based on cloning. ... Dolly (July 5, 1996 – February 14, 2003), a ewe, was the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell. ... Binomial name Linnaeus, 1758 Distribution of Ostriches. ... Look up medium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Jurassic Park III is a 2001 film that is the third film as part of the Jurassic Park franchise. ...

References

Gregory S. Paul (born 1954) is a freelance paleontologist, author and illustrator. ... Paul Callistus Sereno (born October 11, 1957) is an American paleontologist who is the discoverer of several new dinosaur species on several continents. ... Jeffrey A. Wilson is a professor of geological sciences and assistant curator at the Museum of Paleontology at the University of Michigan. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Xu Xing, of the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology(IVPP) in Beijing, is a famed Chinese paleontologist who has named many dinosaurs, including the new Jurassic Ceratopsian Yinlong and feathered relative of Tyrannosaurus, Guanlong. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Gregory S. Paul (born 1954) is a freelance paleontologist, author and illustrator. ... Donald F. Glut is an American writer, motion picture director, screenwriter and actor. ... Peter Dodson is an American paleontologist who has published many papers and written and collaborated on books about dinosaurs. ... New Scientist is a weekly international science magazine covering recent developments in science and technology for a general English-speaking audience. ... Ballantine Books, founded in 1952 by Ian Ballantine, is a major book publisher and is currently owned by Random House. ... Michael Crichton, pronounced [1], (born October 23, 1942) is an American author, film producer, film director, and television producer. ... For the feature film based on this book, see Jurassic Park (film). ... Colophon of the publisher Alfred A. Knopf. ... Kenneth Carpenter is a Paleontologist at the Denver Museum of Natural History and author or co-author of a number of books on dinosaurs and Mesozoic life. ... Science News is an American weekly magazine devoted to short articles about new scientific and technical developments, typically gleaned from recent scientific and technical journals. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 275th day of the year (276th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Further reading

• The Science of Jurassic Park and The Lost World. Or How to Build a Dinosaur. Rob DeSalle and David Lindley. BasicBooks, New York, 1997. ISBN 0-465-07379-4.