Predatory Polistes wasp looking for bollworms or other caterpillars on a cotton plant

Biological control of pests and diseases is a method of controlling pests (including weeds and diseases) in agriculture that relies on natural predation, parasitism or other natural mechanism, rather than introduced chemicals. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... This snapping turtle is trying to make a meal of a Canada goose, but the goose is too wary. ... In this image of a female Polistes wasp tending to a nest, a long, black petiole, by which the nest is attached to the branch, is quite apparent. ... Genera The vespids are a family of wasps, including all social wasps and some solitary wasps. ... Caterpillar of the Emperor Gum Moth A caterpillar is the larval form of a member of the Order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). ... This is a disambiguation. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A juvenile Red-tailed Hawk eating a California Vole In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator organism feeds on another living organism or organisms known as prey. ... Mites parasitising a harvestman Parasitism is one version of symbiosis (living together), a phenomenon in which two organisms which are phylogenetically unrelated co-exist over a prolonged period of time, usually the lifetime of one of the individuals. ...

Overview

Diagram illustrating the natural enemies of cabbage pests

Biological Control is defined as the reduction of pest populations by natural enemies and typically involves an active human role. Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Predators, such as lady beetles and lacewings, are mainly free-living species that consume a large number of prey during their lifetime. Parasitoids are species whose immature stage develops on or within a single insect host, ultimately killing the host. Many species of wasps and some flies are parasitoids. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their host and are relatively specific to certain insect groups. There are three basic types of biological control strategies; conservation, classical biological control, and augmentation. These are discussed in more detail below. Image File history File links CabbagepestsRetouched. ... Image File history File links CabbagepestsRetouched. ...

Conservation

The conservation of natural enemies is probably the most important and readily available biological control practice available to homeowners and gardeners. Natural enemies occur in all areas, from the backyard garden to the commercial field. They are adapted to the local environment and to the target pest, and their conservation is generally simple and cost-effective. Lacewings, lady beetles, hover fly larvae, and parasitized aphid mummies are almost always present in aphid colonies. Fungus-infected adult flies are often common following periods of high humidity. These naturally occurring biological controls are often susceptible to the same pesticides used to target their hosts. Preventing the accidental eradication of natural enemies is termed simple conservation.

Classical Biological Control

Classical biological control is the introduction of natural enemies to a new locale where they did not originate or do not occur naturally. This is usually done by government authorities. In many instances the complex of natural enemies associated with an insect pest may be inadequate. This is especially evident when an insect pest is accidentally introduced into a new geographic area without its associated natural enemies. These introduced pests are referred to as exotic pests and comprise about 40% of the insect pests in the United States. Examples of introduced vegetable pests include the European corn borer, one of the most destructive insects in North America. To obtain the needed natural enemies, scientists turned to classical biological control. This is the practice of importing, and releasing for establishment, natural enemies to control an introduced (exotic) pest, although it is also practiced against native insect pests. The first step in the process is to determine the origin of the introduced pest and then collect appropriate natural enemies associated with the pest or closely related species. The natural enemy is then passed through a rigorous quarantine process, to ensure that no unwanted organisms (such as hyperparasitoids) are introduced, then they are mass produced, and released. Follow-up studies are conducted to determine if the natural enemy becomes successfully established at the site of release, and to assess the long-term benefit of its presence. this insect is a europian insect whcich is a pest to maize ...

There are many examples of successful classical biological control programs. One of the earliest successes was with the cottony cushion scale, a pest that was devastating the California citrus industry in the late 1800s. A predatory insect, the vedalia beetle, and a parasitoid fly were introduced from Australia. Within a few years the cottony cushion scale was completely controlled by these introduced natural enemies. Damage from the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of several natural enemies. About 20 years after their introduction, the alfalfa acreage treated for alfalfa weevil in the northeastern United States was reduced by 75 percent. A small wasp, Trichogramma ostriniae, introduced from China to help control the European corn borer, is a recent example of a long history of classical biological control efforts for this major pest. Many classical biological control programs for insect pests and weeds are under way across the United States and Canada. Binomial name (Maskell, 1878) Icerya purchasi (common name: cottony cushion scale)is a scale insect that feeds on several species of woody plants, most notably on Citrus. ...

Classical biological control is long lasting and inexpensive. Other than the initial costs of collection, importation, and rearing, little expense is incurred. When a natural enemy is successfully established it rarely requires additional input and it continues to kill the pest with no direct help from humans and at no cost. Unfortunately, classical biological control does not always work. It is usually most effective against exotic pests and less so against native insect pests. The reasons for failure are often not known, but may include the release of too few individuals, poor adaptation of the natural enemy to environmental conditions at the release location, and lack of synchrony between the life cycle of the natural enemy and host pest.

Augmentation

This third type of biological control involves the supplemental release of natural enemies. Relatively few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of the season (inoculative release) or literally millions may be released (inundative release). Additionally, the cropping system may be modified to favor or augment the natural enemies. This latter practice is frequently referred to as habitat manipulation.

An example of inoculative release occurs in greenhouse production of several crops. Periodic releases of the parasitoid, Encarsia formosa, are used to control greenhouse whitefly, and the predaceous mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, is used for control of the two-spotted spider mite. Binomial name Gahan, 1924 These tiny wasps are parasites of greenhouse whitefly. ...

Lady beetles, lacewings, or parasitoids such as Trichogramma are frequently released in large numbers (inundative release). Recommended release rates for Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre per week depending on level of pest infestation. Similarly, entomopathogenic nematodes are released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests. Species 230+, see text The wasps of genus Trichogramma are some of the most widely-studied agents of biological control in the field of entomology. ... Classes Adenophora    Subclass Enoplia    Subclass Chromadoria Secernentea    Subclass Rhabditia    Subclass Spiruria    Subclass Diplogasteria The roundworms (Phylum Nematoda) are one of the most common phyla of animals, with over 20,000 different described species. ...

Habitat or environmental manipulation is another form of augmentation. This tactic involves altering the cropping system to augment or enhance the effectiveness of a natural enemy. Many adult parasitoids and predators benefit from sources of nectar and the protection provided by refuges such as hedgerows, cover crops, and weedy borders.

Mixed plantings and the provision of flowering borders can increase the diversity of habitats and provide shelter and alternative food sources. They are easily incorporated into home gardens and even small-scale commercial plantings, but are more difficult to accommodate in large-scale crop production. There may also be some conflict with pest control for the large producer because of the difficulty of targeting the pest species and the use of refuges by the pest insects as well as natural enemies.

Examples of habitat manipulation include growing flowering plants (pollen and nectar sources) near crops to attract and maintain populations of natural enemies. For example, hover fly adults can be attracted to umbelliferous plants in bloom. Type genus Apium L. Genera including: Anethum Anthriscus Angelica Apium Arracacia Carum Centella Conium Coriandrum Cuminum Daucus Eryngium Foeniculum Levisticum Myrrhis Pastinaca Petroselinum Pimpinella For complete list, see List of Apiaceae genera. ...

Biological control experts in California have demonstrated that planting prune trees in grape vineyards provides an improved overwintering habitat or refuge for a key grape pest parasitoid. The prune trees harbor an alternate host for the parasitoid, which could previously overwinter only at great distances from most vineyards. Caution should be used with this tactic because some plants attractive to natural enemies may also be hosts for certain plant diseases, especially plant viruses that could be vectored by insect pests to the crop. Although the tactic appears to hold much promise, only a few examples have been adequately researched and developed.

Examples of predators

Ladybird larva eating wooly apple aphids

Lacewings are available from biocontrol dealers.

Ladybugs, and in particular their larvae which are active between May and July in the northern hemisphere, are voracious predators of aphids such as greenfly and blackfly, and will also consume mites, scale insects and small caterpillars. The ladybug is a very familiar beetle with various colored markings, whilst its larvae are initially small and spidery, growing up to 17 mm long. The larvae a tapering segmented grey/black body with orange/yellow markings nettles in the garden and by leaving hollow stems and some plant debris over-winter so that they can hibernate over winter. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1200x1256, 1379 KB) Summary Ladybird larva eating wooly apple aphids Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby grant the permission to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1200x1256, 1379 KB) Summary Ladybird larva eating wooly apple aphids Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby grant the permission to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... Subfamilies Chilocorinae Coccidulinae Coccinellinae Epilachninae Scymininae Sticholotidinae etc. ... Lacewing Image copyleft: Image taken by me, released under GFDL Pollinator 03:48, Nov 9, 2004 (UTC) ( ) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Lacewing Image copyleft: Image taken by me, released under GFDL Pollinator 03:48, Nov 9, 2004 (UTC) ( ) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Genera See text Green lacewings are insects in the very large family Chrysopidae of the order Neuroptera. ... Subfamilies Chilocorinae Coccidulinae Coccinellinae Epilachninae Scymininae Sticholotidinae etc. ... Families There are 10 families: Adelgidae Anoeciidae Aphididae Drepanosiphidae Homomasagymibutae Greenideidae Hormaphididae Lachnidae Mindaridae Pemphigidae Phloeomyzidae Phylloxeridae Thelaxidae Aphids, also known as greenfly, blackfly or plant lice, are minute plant-feeding insects in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the homopterous division of the order Hemiptera. ... Families There are 10 families: Adelgidae - adelgids, conifer aphids Anoeciidae Aphididae Drepanosiphidae Homomasagymibutae Greenideidae Hormaphididae Lachnidae Mindaridae Pemphigidae Phloeomyzidae Phylloxeridae Thelaxidae Aphids, also known as greenfly/blackfly or plantlice, are minute plant-feeding insects in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the homopterous division of the order Hemiptera. ... Blackfly was a Canadian sitcom which ran on the Global Television Network for two seasons. ... Families Tetranychidae - Spider mites Eriophyidae - Gall mites Sarcoptidae - Sarcoptic Mange mites The mites and ticks, order Acarina or Acari, belong to the Arachnida and are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups, although some way behind the insects. ... Families Aclerdidae Asterolecaniidae Beesoniidae Carayonemidae Cerococcidae Coccidae Conchaspididae Dactylopiidae Diaspididae Electrococcidae Eriococcidae Grimaldiellidae Halimococcidae Inkaidae Jersicoccidae Kermesidae Kerriidae Kukaspididae Labiococcidae Lecanodiaspididae Margarodidae Micrococcidae Ortheziidae Phenacoleachiidae Phoenicococcidae Pseudococcidae Putoidae Stictococcidae The scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, notable for their habit of secreting a waxy covering that covers... Caterpillar of the Emperor Gum Moth A caterpillar is the larval form of a member of the Order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). ... Species See text. ...

Hoverflies. Resembling slightly darker bees or wasps, they have characteristic hovering, darting flight patterns. There are over 100 species of hoverfly whose larvae principally feed upon greenfly, one larva devouring up to fifty a day, or 1000 in its lifetime. They also eat fruit tree spider mites and small caterpillars. Adults feed on nectar and pollen, which they require for egg production. Eggs are minute (1 mm), pale yellow white and laid singly near greenfly colonies. Larvae are 8-17 mm long, disguised to resemble bird droppings, they are legless and have no distinct head. Semi-transparent in a range of colours from green, white, brown and black. Genera many genera about 5,000 species The flower flies or hoverflies are a family of flies (Diptera), scientifically termed Syrphidae. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Suborder Apocrita See text for explanation. ... Binomial name Tetranychus urticae C.L. Koch, 1836 The Red Spider Mite is a predatory mite found in dry environments, generally considered a pest. ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), prairie hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), oriental lily (Lilium auratum), evening primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ...

Hoverflies can be encouraged by growing attractant flowers such as the poached egg plant (Limnanthes douglasii), marigolds or phacelia throughout the growing season. Binomial name Limnanthes douglasii R. Br. ... Marigold can mean: Flowering plants in the family Asteraceae in the following genera: Calendula (Marigold or Pot Marigold) Tagetes (Mexican marigold, African marigold or French marigold) Glebionis segetum (syn. ... Species Many, see List of Phacelia Species Phacelia is a genus in the family Boraginaceae of about 150 species of herbs, native of Western North America (the most), Eastern U.S.A. and South America. ...

Dragonflies are important predators of mosquitoes, both in the water, where the dragonfly naiads eat mosquito larvae, and in the air, where adult dragonflies capture and eat adult mosquitoes. Community-wide mosquito control programs that spray adult mosquitoes also kill dragonflies, thus removing an important biocontrol agent, and can actually increase mosquito populations in the long term. This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Naiad by John William Waterhouse, 1893 In Greek mythology, the Naiads (from the Greek νάειν, to flow, and νἃμα, running water) were a type of nymph who presided over fountains, wells, springs, streams, and brooks, as river gods embodied rivers, and some very... Diversity 41 genera Genera See text. ... A larval insect A larva (Latin; plural larvae) is a juvenile form of animal with indirect development, undergoing metamorphosis (for example, insects or amphibians). ...

Other useful garden predators include lacewings, pirate bugs, rove and ground beetles, aphid midge, centipedes, predatory mites, as well as larger fauna such as frogs, toads, lizards, hedgehogs, slow-worms and birds. Cats and rat terriers kill field mice, rats, june bugs, and birds. Dogs chase away many types of pest animals. Dachshunds are bred specifically to fit inside tunnels underground to kill gophers and rabbits. Genera See text Green lacewings are insects in the very large family Chrysopidae of the order Neuroptera. ... Genera see text The Anthocoridae are a family of bugs, commonly called pirate bugs. ... Binomial name (Rondani, 1847) Aphidoletes aphidimyza is a midge whose larvae feed on over 70 aphid species, including the green peach aphid. ... Orders and Families See text Centipedes (Class Chilopoda) are fast-moving venomous, predatory, terrestrial arthropods that have long bodies and many jointed legs. ... Distribution of frogs (in black) Suborders Archaeobatrachia Mesobatrachia Neobatrachia - List of Anuran families The frogness babe is an amphibian in the order Anura (meaning tail-less from Greek an-, without + oura, tail), formerly referred to as Salientia (Latin saltare, to jump). ... Families At least 9, see article. ... Families Many, see text. ... Genera Atelerix Erinaceus Hemiechinus Mesechinus Paraechinus A hedgehog is any of the small spiny mammals of the subfamily Erinaceinae and the order Erinaceomorpha. ... Binomial Name Anguis fragilis Linnaeus, 1758 The Slow Worm (or Slowworm, also known as Blindworm or Blind Worm)(Anguis fragilsi) is a limbless reptile. ... The Dachshund is a short-legged, elongated dog breed of the hound family. ...

Parasitic wasps

A diverse range of wasps lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as a food for developing wasps. Parasitic wasps take much longer than predators to consume their victims, for if the larvae were to eat too fast they would run out of food before they became adults. Such parasites are very useful in the organic garden, for they are very efficient hunters, always at work searching for pest invaders. As adults they require high energy fuel as they fly from place to place, and feed upon nectar, pollen and sap, therefore planting plenty of flowering plants, particularly buckwheat, umbellifers and composites will encourage their presence. Binomial name Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is a plant in the genus Fagopyrum (sometimes merged into genus Polygonum) in the family Polygonaceae. ... Genera See text Ref: Hortiplex 2003-11-14 The Apiaceae, the carrot or parsley family, are a family of usually aromatic plants with hollow stems, including parsley, carrot, and other relatives. ... Diversity About 1500 genera and 23,000 species Type Genus Aster L. Subfamilies Barnadesioideae Cichorioideae Tribe Arctotidae Tribe Cardueae Tribe Eremothamneae Tribe Lactuceae Tribe Liabeae Tribe Mutisieae Tribe Tarchonantheae Tribe Vernonieae Asteroideae Tribe Anthemideae Tribe Astereae Tribe Calenduleae Tribe Eupatorieae Tribe Gnaphalieae Tribe Helenieae Tribe Heliantheae Tribe Inuleae Tribe Plucheae...

Three of the most important groups are;

• Ichneumon flies: (5-10 mm). Prey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and moths.
• Braconid wasps: Tiny wasps (up to 5 mm) attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including greenfly. A common parasite of the cabbage white caterpillar- seen as clusters of sulphur yellow cocoons bursting from collapsed caterpillar skin.
• Chalcid wasps: Among the smallest of insects (<3 mm). Parasitize eggs/larvae of greenfly, whitefly, cabbage caterpillars, scale insects and strawberry tortrix moth.

Families Braconidae Ichneumonidae The Ichneumon wasps are insects classified in the parasitica group of the suborder Apocrita within the Order Hymenoptera. ... Caterpillar of the Emperor Gum Moth A caterpillar is the larval form of a member of the Order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). ... For other uses of the term butterfly, see butterfly (disambiguation). ... Lepidopteran on a flower. ... Braconidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. ... Subfamilies See text. ... Families There are 10 families: Adelgidae - adelgids, conifer aphids Anoeciidae Aphididae Drepanosiphidae Homomasagymibutae Greenideidae Hormaphididae Lachnidae Mindaridae Pemphigidae Phloeomyzidae Phylloxeridae Thelaxidae Aphids, also known as greenfly/blackfly or plantlice, are minute plant-feeding insects in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the homopterous division of the order Hemiptera. ... Whitefly Categories: Stub ... Families Aclerdidae Asterolecaniidae Beesoniidae Carayonemidae Cerococcidae Coccidae Conchaspididae Dactylopiidae Diaspididae Electrococcidae Eriococcidae Grimaldiellidae Halimococcidae Inkaidae Jersicoccidae Kermesidae Kerriidae Kukaspididae Labiococcidae Lecanodiaspididae Margarodidae Micrococcidae Ortheziidae Phenacoleachiidae Phoenicococcidae Pseudococcidae Putoidae Stictococcidae The scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, notable for their habit of secreting a waxy covering that covers...

Plants to regulate insect pests

Choosing a diverse range of plants for the garden can help to regulate pests in a variety of ways, including;

• Masking the crop plants from pests, depending on the proximity of the companion or intercrop.
• Producing olfactory inhibitors, odors that confuse and deter pests.
• Acting as trap plants by providing an alluring food that entices pests away from crops.
• Serving as nursery plants, providing breeding grounds for beneficial insects.
• Providing an alternative habitat, usually in a form of a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or beetle bank where beneficial insects can live and reproduce. Nectar-rich plants that bloom for long periods are especially good, as many beneficials are nectivorous during the adult stage, but parasitic or predatory as larvae. A good example of this is the soldier beetle which is frequently found on flowers as an adult, but whose larvae eat aphids, caterpillars, grasshopper eggs, and other beetles.

The following are plants often used in vegetable gardens to deter insects ^[1] In agriculture and gardening, beneficial insects perform valuable services, like consuming pests, and pollinating plants. ... A windbreak,or shelterbelt, is usually made up of one or more rows of trees planted in such a manner as to provide shelter from the wind and to prevent soil erosion. ... For other meanings, see hedge. ... In agriculture, a beetle bank is a strip of grass or perennials in a field that provide habitat which fosters and provides cover for insects hostile to pests. ... Vegetable plots at a childrens farm in Melbourne, Australia. ...

• Basil — Repels flies and mosquitoes.
• Catnip — Deters flea beetle.
• Garlic — Deters Japanese beetle.
• Horseradish — Deters potato bugs.
• Marigold — The workhorse of pest deterrents. Discourages Mexian bean beetles, nematodes and others.
• Mint — Deters white cabbage moth, ants.
• Nasturtium — Deters aphids, squash bugs and striped pumpkin beetles.
• Pot Marigold — Deters asparagus beetles, tomato worm, and general garden pests.
• Peppermint — Repels the white cabbage butterfly.
• Rosemary — Deters cabbage moth, bean beetles and carrot fly.
• Sage — Deters cabbage moth and carrot fly.
• Southernwood — Deters cabbage moth.
• Summer Savory — Deters bean beetles.
• Tansy — Deters flying insects, Japanese beetles, striped cucumber beetles, squash bugs and ants.
• Thyme — Deters cabbage worm.
• Wormwood — Deters animals from garden.

Binomial name Ocimum basilicum L. Basil (Ocimum basilicum) of the Family Lamiaceae is also known as Sweet Basil. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Nepeta. ... Binomial name Allium sativum L. Allium sativum L., commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion family Alliaceae. ... Binomial name Armoracia rusticana P.G. Gaertn. ... Marigold can mean: Flowering plants in the family Asteraceae in the following genera: Calendula (Marigold or Pot Marigold) Tagetes (Mexican marigold, African marigold or French marigold) Glebionis segetum (syn. ... MiNT (MiNT is Now TOS) is an alternative operating system (OS) kernel for the Atari ST computer and its successors which is free software. ... Species About 80 species, see text. ... Species See text Calendula (marigold) is a genus of about 12-20 species of annual or perennial herbaceous plants in the daisy family Asteraceae, native to the area from Macaronesia east through the Mediterranean region to Iran. ... Binomial name Mentha × piperita L. Peppermint (Mentha × piperita) is a (usually) sterile hybrid mint, a cross between watermint (Mentha aquatica) and spearmint (Mentha spicata). ... Binomial name L. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rosmarinus officinalis Wikispecies has information related to: Rosmarinus officinalis Wikibooks Cookbook has an article on Rosemary Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is a woody, perennial herb with fragrant evergreen needle-like leaves. ... Binomial name Salvia officinalis L. Sage leaves Common sage (Salvia officinalis) is a small evergreen subshrub, with woody stems, grayish leaves, and blue to purplish flowers native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. ... Binomial name Artemisia abrotanum L. Southernwood, southern wormwood, or lemon plant, is a flowering plant, Artemisia abrotanum. ... Binomial name Satureja hortensis Summer savory (Satureja hortensis) is the better known of the Savory species. ... Binomial name Tanacetum vulgare L. Illustration of a tansy The Tansy, Common Tansy, or Golden Buttons (Tanacetum vulgare) is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant of the aster family that is native to temperate Europe and Asia. ... Species About 350 species, including: Thymus adamovicii Thymus altaicus Thymus amurensis Thymus bracteosus Thymus broussonetii Thymus caespititius Thymus camphoratus Thymus capitatus Thymus capitellatus Thymus camphoratus Thymus carnosus Thymus cephalotus Thymus cherlerioides Thymus ciliatus Thymus cilicicus Thymus cimicinus Thymus comosus Thymus comptus Thymus curtus Thymus disjunctus Thymus doerfleri Thymus glabrescens Thymus... Look up Wormwood in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Directly introducing biological controls

Diagram illustrating the life cycles of Greenhouse whitefly and its parasitoid wasp Encarsia formosa

Most of the biological controls listed above depend on providing incentives in order to 'naturally' attract beneficial insects to the garden. However there are occasions when biological controls can be directly introduced. Common biocontrol agents include parasitoids, predators, pathogens or weed feeders. This is particularly appropriate in situations such as the greenhouse, a largely artificial environment, and are usually purchased by mail order. Image File history File links Life cycle of whitefly wasp. ... Image File history File links Life cycle of whitefly wasp. ...

Some biocontrol agents that can be introduced include;

• Encarsia formosa. This is a small predatory chaclid wasp which is parasitical on whitefly, a sap-feeding insect which can cause wilting and black sooty moulds. It is most effective when dealing with low level infestations, giving protection over a long period of time. The wasp lays its eggs in young whitefly 'scales', turning them black as the parasite larvae pupates. It should be introduced as soon as possible after the first adult whitefly are seen. Should be used in conjunction with insecticidal soap.

• Red spider mite, another pest found in the greenhouse, can be controlled with the predatory mite Phytoseilus persimilis. This is slightly larger than its prey and has an orange body. It develops from egg to adult twice as fast as the red spider mite and once established quickly overcomes infestation.

• A fairly recent development in the control of slugs is the introduction of 'Nemaslug', a microscopic nematode (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita) which will seek out and Parasitize slugs, reproducing inside them and killing them. The nematode is applied by watering onto moist soil, and gives protection for up to six weeks in optimum conditions, though is mainly effective with small and young slugs under the soil surface.

• A bacterial biological control which can be introduced in order to control butterfly caterpillars is Bacillus thuringiensis. This available in sachets of dried spores which are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit trees. The bacterial disease will kill the caterpillars, but leave other insects unharmed. There are strains of Bt that are effective against other insect larvae. Bt israelensis is effective against mosquito larvae and some midges.

• A biological control being developed for use in the treatment of plant disease is the fungus Trichoderma viride. This has been used against Dutch Elm disease, and to treat the spread of fungal and bacterial growth on tree wounds. It may also have potential as a means of combating silver leaf disease.

• The parasitoid Gonatocerus ashmeadi (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) has been introduced to control the glassy-winged sharpshooter Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemipterae: Cicadellidae) in French Polynesia and has successfully controlled ~95% of the pest density

Whitefly Categories: Stub ... Sooty mold is a fungus which grows from the sugary honeydew secreted by aphids, scales, the whitefly, and other insects which suck sap from their host plants. ... Insecticidal soap is defined as any of the potassium fatty acid soaps used to control many plant pests. ... Subinfraorders, superfamilies, and families See text Slugs are gastropod mollusks without shells or with very small internal shells, in contrast to snails, which have a prominent coiled shell. ... Classes Adenophorea    Subclass Enoplia    Subclass Chromadoria Secernentea    Subclass Rhabditia    Subclass Spiruria    Subclass Diplogasteria The nematodes or roundworms (Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema): thread + -ode like) are one of the most common phyla of animals, with over 20,000 different described species (over 15,000 are parasitic). ... Binomial name Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner 1915 Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil dwelling bacterium of the genus Bacillus. ... Species See text. ... A plum tree Flowering almond tree A fruit tree is a tree bearing fruit — the structures formed by the ripened ovary of a flower containing one or more seeds. ... Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies israelensis, also known as Bti, is a biological control agent for larval mosquitoes. ... Diversity 41 genera Genera See text. ... For the fictional character, see Fungus the Bogeyman. ... Branch death, or Flagging, at multiple locations in the crown of a diseased elm. ... Binomial name (Pers. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Suborders Apocrita Symphyta Hymenoptera is one of the larger orders of insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. ... Diversity 0-2 subfamilies c. ... The Glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca coagulata) is a large leafhopper insect from the family Cicadellidae. ... Binomial name (Germar, 1821) The glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca vitripennis, formerly known as ) is a large leafhopper insect from the family Cicadellidae, similar to other species of sharpshooter. ...

Economics of biological pest control

Biological control proves to be very successful economically, and even when the method has been less successful, it still produces a benefit-to-cost ratio of 11:1. One study has estimated that a successful biocontrol program returns £32 in benefits for each £1 invested in developing and implementing the program, i.e., a 32:1 benefit-to-cost ratio. The same study had shown that an average chemical pesticide program only returned profits in the ratio of 13:1.^{[citation needed]}

Negative results of biological pest control

In some cases, biological pest control can have negative results, even having more damaging effects than positive. An example is when the mongoose was introduced to Hawaii in order to control the rat population. In overall, the mongoose ate Endemic birds of Hawaii, especially their eggs, more often than it ate rats. Subfamiles Herpestinae A mongoose is a member of the family of small cat-like carnivores. ... Official language(s) English, Hawaiian Capital Honolulu Largest city Honolulu Area  Ranked 43rd  - Total 10,931 sq mi (29,311 km²)  - Width n/a miles (n/a km)  - Length 1,522 miles (2,450 km)  - % water 41. ... Species 50 species; see text *Several subfamilies of Muroids include animals called rats. ... This article is one of a series providing information about endemism among birds in the Worlds various zoogeographic zones. ... In most birds and reptiles, an egg (Latin ovum) is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum. ...

References

• Hoddle M.S., Grandgirard J., Petit J., Roderick G.K., Davies N., 2006. Glassy-winged sharpshooter Ko'ed - First round - in French Polynesia. Biocontrol News and Information 27(3), 47N-62N
• U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment 1995. Biologically based technologies for pest control, OTA-ENV-636, Washington, DC. http://www.wws.princeton.edu/ota/ns20/year_f.html

See also

• Insectary plants
• Integrated Pest Management
• Japanese beetle (article includes information on biological control methods)
• Organic farming
• Pesticide
• Sterile insect technique

Elderberry in Bloom Hover Fly Insectary plants is a term used by the organics farming movement to describe plants that attract insects. ... IPM bollworm trap Cotton field Manning, South Carolina In agriculture, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods: natural predators and parasites, pest-resistant varieties (see GMO), cultural practices, biological controls, various physical techniques, and pesticides as a last resort. ... Binomial name Newman, 1841 Wikispecies has information related to: Japanese beetle The Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) is a beetle about 1. ... Organic cultivation of mixed vegetables in Capay, California. ... A cropduster spreading pesticide. ... El Salvador successfully demonstrated the sterile insect technique eliminating the malaria causing mosquito, from a region for a period of time. ...

External links and references

• Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America
• Beyond Pesticides - Provides information on pesticides and alternatives to their use
• Association of Natural Biocontrol Producers (ANBP) Trade association of biological pest control industry.
• Successful biocontrol of the GWSS in French Polynesia
• Making Greater Use of Introduced Microorganisms for Biological Control of Plant Pathogens

R J Cook, Annual Review of Phytopathology, September 1993, Vol. 31, Pages 53-80 [1]