Psychiatry

SPECIALTIES

Biopsychiatry Neuropsychiatry Social psychiatry Cross-cultural Behavioral Forensic Liason Pharmacology Psychotherapy Psychiatrist redirects here. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (860x860, 69 KB) Description: saggital transection through the human brain Source: this is my very own brain. ... Biological psychiatry, sometimes referred to as bio-psychiatry, is a term used mainly by critics of mainstream mental health orthodoxy to describe what some believe are unproven and subjective diagnostic and treatment practices in the mental health field. ... Neuropsychiatry is the branch of medicine dealing with mental disorders attributable to diseases of the nervous system. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Cross-cultural psychiatry is a branch of psychiatry concerned with the cultural and ethnic context of mental disorder and psychiatric services. ... Behavioral medicine is an interdisciplinary field of medicine concerned with the development and integration of psychosocial, behavioral and biomedical knowledge relevant to health and illness. ... Forensic psychiatry is a subspeciality of psychiatry. ... Liaison psychiatry, also known as consultative psychiatry or consultation-liaison psychiatry is the branch of psychiatry that specialises in the interface between other medical specialties and psychiatry, and concerns itself with patients with problems in both physical and mental health, as well as patients who may report physical symptoms as... Psychopharmacology is the study of the effects of any psychoactive drug that acts upon the mind by affecting brain chemistry. ... // Psychotherapy is a range of techniques based on dialogue, communication and behavior change and which are designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (such as in a family). ...

SOCIETIES

American Board American Psychiatric UK Psychiatric A professional body or professional organization is an organisation, usually non-profit, that exists to further a particular profession, to protect both the public interest and the interests of professionals. ... The American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology was founded in 1934 following conferences of committees appointed by the American Psychiatric Association, the American Neurological Association, and the then Section on Nervous and Mental Diseases of the American Medical Association. ... The American Psychiatric Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the most influential world-wide. ... The Royal College of Psychiatrists has been in existence in some form since 1841. ...

LISTS

Psychiatrists Famous psychiatrists Physicians Psychiatric drugs Drugs by condition Neurological disorders Psychotherapies This list includes notable medical doctors specializing in the field of psychiatry. ... Categories: | | ... This is a list of famous physicians in history: // Thomas Addis (1881–1949) — pioneered urine testing and the study of renal diseases Virginia Apgar (1909–1974) — anesthesiologist who devised the Apgar score used after childbirth Hans Asperger (1906–1980) — Austrian paediatrician after whom Aspergers Syndrome is named Jean Astruc... This is a list of psychiatric drugs or medications used by psychiatrists to treat mental illness or distress. ... This is a list of psychiatric drugs used by psychiatrists to treat mental illness or distress. ... This is a list of major and frequently observed neurological disorders (e. ... This is an alphabetical List of Psychotherapies. ... This box: view • talk • edit

Biological psychiatry, or biopsychiatry is an approach to psychiatry that aims to understand mental disorder in terms of the biological function of the nervous system. It is interdisciplinary in its approach and draws on sciences such as neuroscience, psychopharmacology, biochemistry, genetics and physiology to form theories about the biological bases of behaviour and psychopathology. ^[1][2][3][4] Psychiatrist redirects here. ... The Scream, the famous painting commonly thought of as depicting the experience of mental illness. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Human Nervous System The nervous system of an animal coordinates the activity of the muscles, monitors the organs, constructs and also stops input from the senses, and initiates actions. ... Interdisciplinary work is that which integrates concepts across different disciplines. ... Drawing of the cells in the chicken cerebellum by S. Ramón y Cajal Neuroscience is a field that is devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system. ... Psychopharmacology is the study of the effects of any psychoactive drug that acts upon the mind by affecting brain chemistry. ... Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes and transformations in living organisms. ... For a non-technical introduction to the topic, please see Introduction to genetics. ... Leonardo da Vincis Vitruvian Man, an important early achievement in the study of physiology. ... Behavior or behaviour refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. ... Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of mental illness or mental distress the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment. ...

While there is some overlap between biological psychiatry and neurology, the latter generally focuses on disorders where gross or visible pathology of the nervous system is apparent, such as epilepsy, cerebral palsy, encephalitis, neuritis, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis. There is some overlap with neuropsychiatry, which typically deals with behavioural disturbance in the context of apparent brain disorder. Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. ... Cerebral palsy (CP) is an umbrella term encompassing a group of non-progressive, non-contagious neurological disorders that cause physical disability in human development, specifically the human movement and posture. ... Encephalitis is an acute inflammation of the brain, commonly caused by a viral infection. ... Inflammation is the first response of the immune system to infection or irritation and may be referred to as the innate cascade. ... Neuropsychiatry is the branch of medicine dealing with mental disorders attributable to diseases of the nervous system. ...

Biological psychiatry and other approaches to mental illness are not mutually exclusive, but may simply attempt to deal with the phenomena at different levels of explanation. Because of the focus on the biological function of the nervous system, however, biological psychiatry has been particularly important in developing and prescribing drug-based treatments for mental disorder.

In practice, however, psychiatrists may advocate both medication and psychological therapies when treating mental illness. The therapy is more likely to be conducted by clinical psychologists, psychotherapists, occupational therapists or other mental health workers who are more specialised and trained in non-drug approaches.^[5][6] Clinical psychology is the application of psychology to mental illness or mental health problems. ... Psychotherapy is a set of techniques believed to cure or to help solve behavioral and other psychological problems in humans. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Occupational therapy. ...

The history of the field extends back to the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates,^[7] but the term biological psychiatry was first used in peer-reviewed scientific literature in 1953. The term is more commonly used in the US than in some other countries such as the UK. ^[8] The field, however, is not without its critics and the phrase "biological psychiatry" is sometimes used by those critics as a term of disparagement. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos (c. ...

Scope and detailed definition

See also: Biological psychology

Biological Psychiatry is a branch of Psychiatry where the focus is chiefly on researching & understanding the biological basis of major mental disorders such as Unipolar & Bipolar Affective (Mood) Disorders, Schizophrenia & Organic Mental Disorders such as Alzheimers Disease. This knowledge has been gained using imaging techniques, psychopharmacology, neuroimmunochemistry & so on. Discovering the detailed interplay between neurotransmitters and the understanding of the neurotransmitter fingerprint of psychiatric drugs such as Clozapine has been a helpful result of the research. On a research level, it includes all possible biological bases of behavior - biochemical, genetic, physiological, neurological and anatomical. On a clinical level, it includes various therapies, such as drugs, diet, avoidance of environmental contaminants, exercise, and alleviation of the adverse effects of life stress^[9], all of which can cause measurable biochemical changes.^[10] The biological psychiatrist views all of these as possible etiologies of or remedies for mental health disorders. Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. ... Etiology (alternately aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. ...

However, the biological psychiatrist typically does not discount psychoanalytic approaches (talk therapies). Medical psychiatric training generally includes both psychodynamic and biological approaches.^[5] Accordingly, psychiatrists are usually comfortable with a dual approach: "psychotherapeutic methods...are as indispensable as psychopharmacotherapy in a modern psychiatric clinic"^[6], Psychodynamic psychotherapy is a type of psychotherapy, usually meeting about once or twice a week. ...

Basis for biological psychiatry

Sigmund Freud developed psychotherapy in the early 1900s, and through the 1950s this technique was prominent in treating mental health disorders. Sigmund Freud (born Sigismund Schlomo Freud) May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939; (IPA pronunciation: [] in German, [] in English) was a Jewish-Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who co-founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology. ...

However in the late 1950s, the first modern antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs were developed: Chlorpromazine (also known as Thorazine), the first widely-used antipsychotic, was synthesized in 1950, and iproniazid, one of the first antidepressants, was first synthesized in 1957. In 1959 imipramine, the first tricyclic antidepressant, was developed. The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ... A recent form of antidepressant medication - Prozac Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, Venlafaxine An antidepressant, in the most common usage, is a medication taken to alleviate clinical depression or dysthymia (milder depression). ... Chlorpromazine was the first antipsychotic drug, used during the 1950s and 1960s. ... Iproniazid is a monamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) that was developed as the first anti-depressant (Also first psychiatric drug). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Chemical structure of the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline. ...

Based significantly on clinical observations of the above drug results, in 1965 the seminal paper "The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders" was published.^[11] It articulated the "chemical imbalance" hypothesis of mental health disorders, especially depression. It formed much of the conceptual basis for the modern era in biological psychiatry.^[12] Chemical imbalance is a term used, particularly but not exclusively in medicine, to describe a situation where different chemical substances required for correct functioning of a system are not present in the required or correct proportions. ...

Although the "chemical imbalance" hypothesis has been significantly revised since 1965, many newer medications (such as fluoxetine and other SSRIs) were developed based on the underlying theories of the hypothesis. More recent research points to deeper underlying biological mechansisms as the possible basis for several mental health disorders.^[13][14] Fluoxetine hydrochloride is an antidepressant drug used medically in the treatment of depression, body dysmorphic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, bulimia nervosa, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, hypochondriasis and panic disorder. ... SSRI is an acronym that stands for several things: It is a class of antidepressants called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor SSRI also is used as the stock symbol for Silver Standard Resources Inc. ...

Modern brain imaging techniques allow noninvasive examination of neural function in patients with mental health disorders, however this is currently experimental. With some disorders it appears the proper imaging equipment can reliably detect certain neurobiological problems associated with a specific disorder.^[15][16] If further studies corroborate these experimental results, future diagnosis of certain mental health disorders could be expedited using such methods.

Another source of data indicating a significant biological aspect of some mental health disorders is twin studies. Identical twins have the same nuclear DNA, so carefully constructed studies may indicate the relative importance of environmental and genetic factors on the development of a particular mental health disorder. Twin study - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

The results from this research and the associated hypotheses form the basis for biological psychiatry and the treatment approaches in a clinical setting.

Scope of clinical biological psychiatric treatment

While psychiatrists often combine both psychodynamic ("talk therapy") and biological approaches, this discussion covers mainly the biological aspects.

Since various biological factors can affect mood and behavior, psychiatrists often evaluate these before initiating further treatment. Such factors include hormone levels (especially thyroid), diet (especially alcohol and caffeine), and amount/quality of regular sleep and exercise.

Biological treatment of mental health disorders is not limited to drugs. Non-drug treatments include diet and exercise modifications, and in some severe cases treatments such as transcranial magnetic stimulation or electroconvulsive therapy may be indicated. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is the use of powerful rapidly changing magnetic fields to induce electric fields in the brain by electromagnetic induction without the need for surgery or external electrodes. ... Electroconvulsive therapy CHA CHA CHA (ECT), also known as electroshock treatment and electroshock therapy, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are induced by passing electricity through the brain of an anaesthetised patient. ...

Diagnostic process

Correct diagnosis is important for mental health disorders, otherwise the condition could worsen, resulting in a negative impact on both the patient and the healthcare system.^[17] Another problem with misdiagnosis is that a treatment for one condition might exacerbate other conditions.^[18][19] In other cases apparent mental health disorders could be a side effect of a serious biological problem such as concussion,^[20] brain tumor,^[21][22] or hormonal abnormality,^{[21][23][24][25]} which could require medical or surgical intervention.

Disorders and biologic treatment

• Seasonal affective disorder: Light box, SSRIs
• Clinical depression: SSRIs[(Prozac)], SNRIs Effexor, atypical antidepressants: (Wellbutrin, Remeron), electroconvulsive therapy, transcranial magnetic stimulation
• Bipolar disorder: Lithium Carbonate, valproic acid, Lamictal, Carbamazepine
• Schizophrenia: Includes haloperidol, clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, Quetiapine,Ziprazodone
• Generalized anxiety disorder: SSRIs, benzodiazepines, buspirone
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Clomipramine, SSRIs citalopram

Seasonal affective disorder, or SAD, also known as winter depression is an affective, or mood, disorder. ... SSRI is an acronym that stands for several things: It is a class of antidepressants called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor SSRI also is used as the stock symbol for Silver Standard Resources Inc. ... Grieving Thai females. ... Venlafaxine hydrochloride is a prescription antidepressant first introduced by Wyeth in 1993, and marketed under the tradename Effexor®. It is used primarily for the treatment of depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and social anxiety disorder in adults. ... Bupropion (amfebutamone) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or SSRIs. ... Mirtazapine is a prescription antidepressant introduced by Organon in 1996, and marketed under the tradename Remeron® (also: Zispin®, Avanza®, Norset®, Remergil®). It is used primarily for the treatment of clinical depression in adults. ... Electroconvulsive therapy CHA CHA CHA (ECT), also known as electroshock treatment and electroshock therapy, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are induced by passing electricity through the brain of an anaesthetised patient. ... Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is the use of powerful rapidly changing magnetic fields to induce electric fields in the brain by electromagnetic induction without the need for surgery or external electrodes. ... For other uses, see Bipolar. ... Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is a chemical compound of lithium and carbonate that is used as a mood stabilizer in psychiatric treatment of manic states and bipolar disorder. ... Valproic acid is a chemical compound that has found clinical use as an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug, primarily in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder. ... chemical structure of lamotrigine Lamotrigine (marketed as Lamictal by GlaxoSmithKline) is marketed as both an anti-epileptic medication and a treatment for bipolar disorder. ... Carbamazepine (sold under the brand-names Biston, Calepsin, Carbatrol, Epitol, Equetro, Finlepsin, Sirtal, Stazepine, Tegretol, Telesmin, Timonil) is an anticonvulsant and mood stabilizing drug, used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder. ... Haloperidol (sold as Aloperidin®, Bioperidolo®, Brotopon®, Dozic®, Einalon S®, Eukystol®, Haldol®, Halosten®, Keselan®, Linton®, Peluces®, Serenace®, Serenase®, Sigaperidol®) is a conventional butyrophenone antipsychotic drug. ... Clozapine (sold as Clozaril®, Leponex®, Fazaclo®) was the first of the atypical antipsychotics to be developed. ... Olanzapine (oh-LAN-za-peen, sold as Zyprexa®, Zyprexa Zydis®, or in combination with fluoxetine, as Symbyax®) was the third atypical antipsychotic to gain approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has become one of the most commonly used atypical antipsychotics. ... Risperidone (Belivon®, Rispen®, Risperdal® in the United States) is an atypical antipsychotic medication developed by Janssen Pharmaceutica. ... Quetiapine (pronounced kwe-TYE-a-peen or ), marketed by AstraZeneca with the brand name Seroquel, belongs to a series of neuroleptics known as atypical antipsychotics, which have, over the last four decades, become increasingly popular alternatives to typical antipsychotics, such as haloperidol (Haldol). ... General anxiety disorder or generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is an anxiety disorder that is characterized by uncontrollable worry about everyday things. ... Alprazolam 2mg tablets The benzodiazepines (pronounced , or benzos for short) are a class of psychoactive drugs considered as minor tranquilizers with varying hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and amnestic properties which is brought upon by this class of drug slowing down the central nervous system. ... Buspirone (brand-names Ansial®, Ansiced®, Anxiron®, Axoren®, Bespar®, BuSpar®, Buspimen®, Buspinol®, Buspisal®, Narol®) is an anxiolytic agent and a serotonin receptor agonist belonging to the azaspirodecanedione class of compounds. ... Clomipramine (brand-name Anafranil®) is a tricyclic antidepressant. ... Citalopram is an antidepressant drug used to treat depression associated with mood disorders. ...

History

Early 20th century

Sigmund Freud was originally focused on the biological causes of mental illness. Freud's professor and mentor, Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke, strongly believed that thought and behavior were determined by purely biological factors. Freud initially accepted this and was convinced that certain drugs (particularly cocaine) functioned as antidepressants. He spent many years trying to "reduce" personality to neurology, a cause he later gave up on before developing his now well-known psychoanalytic theories.^[26] Sigmund Freud (born Sigismund Schlomo Freud) May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939; (IPA pronunciation: [] in German, [] in English) was a Jewish-Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who co-founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology. ... Ernst Wilhelm Ritter von Brücke (b. ... Cocaine (or crack in its freebase form) is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods based on the work of Sigmund Freud. ...

Nearly 100 years ago, Harvey Cushing, the father of neurosurgery, noted that pituitary gland problems often cause mental health disorders. He wondered whether the depression and anxiety he observed in patients with pituitary disorders were caused by hormonal abnormalities, the physical tumor itself, or both.^[21] Harvey Cushing (c. ... Insertion of an electrode during neurosurgery for Parkinsons disease. ... The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea that sits in a small, bony cavity (pituitary fossa) covered by a membrane. ...

Mid 20th century

An important point in modern history of biological psychiatry was discovery of modern antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs. Chlorpromazine (also known as Thorazine), an antipsychotic, was first synthesized in 1950, and iproniazid, one of the first antidepressants, was first synthesized in 1957. In 1959 imipramine, the first tricyclic antidepressant, was developed. Research into the action of these drugs led to the first modern biological theory of mental health disorders called the catecholamine theory, later broadened to the monoamine theory, which included serotonin. These were popularly called the "chemical imbalance" theory of mental health disorders. The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ... A recent form of antidepressant medication - Prozac Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, Venlafaxine An antidepressant, in the most common usage, is a medication taken to alleviate clinical depression or dysthymia (milder depression). ... Chlorpromazine was the first antipsychotic drug, used during the 1950s and 1960s. ... Iproniazid is a monamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) that was developed as the first anti-depressant (Also first psychiatric drug). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Chemical structure of the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline. ... tyrosine epinephrine norepinephrine dopamine Synthesis This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... In biochemistry, monoamines are a group of organic compounds containing only one amino group. ...

Late 20th century

Starting with fluoxetine (marketed as Prozac) in 1988, a series of monoamine-based antidepressant medications belonging to the class of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors were approved. These were no more effective than earlier antidepressants, but generally had fewer side effects.^[27] Most operate on the same principle, which is modulation of monoamines (neurotransmitters) in the neuronal synapse. Some drugs modulate a single neurotransmitter (typically serotonin). Others affect multiple neurotransmitters, called dual action or multiple action drugs. They are no more effective clinically than single action versions. That most antidepressants invoke the same biochemical method of action may explain why they are each similarly effective in rough terms. Recent research indicates antidepressants often work but are somewhat less effective than earlier thought.^[28] Fluoxetine hydrochloride is an antidepressant drug used medically in the treatment of depression, body dysmorphic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, bulimia nervosa, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, hypochondriasis and panic disorder. ... A recent form of antidepressant medication - Prozac Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, Venlafaxine An antidepressant, in the most common usage, is a medication taken to alleviate clinical depression or dysthymia (milder depression). ... Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of antidepressants. ... Illustration of the major elements in a prototypical synapse. ...

Problems with catecholamine/monoamine hypotheses

The monoamine hypothesis was compelling, especially based on apparently successful clinical results with early antidepressant drugs, but even at the time there were discrepant findings. Only a minority of patients given the serotonin-depleting drug reserpine became depressed; in fact reserpine even acted as an antidepressant in many cases. This was inconsistent with the initial monoamine theory which said depression was cased by neurotransmitter deficiency. Reserpine is an indole alkaloid antipsychotic and antihypertensive drug known to irreversibly bind to storage vesicles of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. ...

Another problem was the time lag between antidepressant biological action and therapeutic benefit. Studies showed the neurotransmitter changes occurred within hours, yet therapeutic benefit took weeks.

To explain these behaviors, more recent modifications of the monoamine theory describe a synaptic adaptation process which takes place over several weeks. Yet this alone does not appear to explain all of the therapeutic effects. ^[29]

Latest biological hypotheses of mental health disorders

New research indicates different biological mechanisms may underlie some mental health disorders, only indirectly related to neurotransmitters and the monoamine "chemical imbalance theory."^[14]

Recent research indicates a biological "final common pathway" may exist which both electroconvulsive therapy^[30] and most current antidepressant drugs have in common. These investigations show recurrent depression may be a neurodegenerative disorder, disrupting the structure and function of brain cells, destroying nerve cell connections, even killing certain brain cells, and precipitating a decline in overall cognitive function.^[14] Electroconvulsive therapy CHA CHA CHA (ECT), also known as electroshock treatment and electroshock therapy, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are induced by passing electricity through the brain of an anaesthetised patient. ... Neurodegenerative disease is a condition which affects the brain function. ...

In this new biological psychiatry viewpoint, neuronal plasticity is a key element. Increasing evidence points to various mental health disorders as a neurophysiological problem which inhibits neuronal plasticity.^[31][32][33] Brain plasticity refers to the changes that occur in the organisation of the brain, and in particular changes that occur to the location of specific information processing functions, as a result of the effect of experience. ...

This is called the neurogenic hypothesis of depression. It promises to explain pharmacological antidepressant action^[13][34], including the time lag from taking the drug to therapeutic onset, why downregulation (not just upregulation) of neurotransmitters can help depression, why stress often precipitates mood disorders,^[35] and why selective modulation of different neurotransmitters can help depression. It may also explain the neurobiological mechanism of other non-drug effects on mood, including exercise, diet and metabolism.^[36] Lastly, by identifying the neurobiological "final common pathway" into which most antidepressants funnel, it may allow rational design of new medications which target only that pathway. This could yield drugs which have fewer side effects, are more effective and have quicker therapeutic onset.^[14]

Criticism

Main article: Biopsychiatry controversy

A vocal minority of patients, activists and mental health care professionals, including some psychiatrists, dispute biological psychiatry as a scientific concept or as having a proper empirical basis, for example arguing that there are no known biomarkers for recognised psychiatric conditions. This position has been represented in scholarly journals such as The Journal of Mind and Behavior ^[37], The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry^{[citation needed]}, and Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry, which publishes material specifically countering "the idea that emotional distress is due to an underlying organic disease." ^[38] Alternative theories and models instead view mental disorder as non-biomedical and might explain it in terms of, for example, emotional reactions to negative life circumstances or to acute trauma. The biopsychiatry controversy is an ongoing dispute over the scientific basis of biological psychiatry theory and practice. ... Activism, in a general sense, can be described as involvement in action to bring about change, be it social, political, environmental, or other change. ... In medicine, a biomarker is an indicator of a particular disease state or a particular state of an organism. ...

The movement, bolstered by groups with similar criticisms of biological psychiatry (such as the Church of Scientology), is often labeled, sometimes derogatorily, as Anti-psychiatry. Others with an anti-psychiatry point of view do not dispute the notion that certain behavior phenotypes have an organic basis, but dispute the labeling of neurological differences as disordered and inferior (see, for example, the autism rights movement and the neurodiversity concept). The Church of Scientology is the largest organization devoted to the practice and the promotion of the Scientology belief system. ... Beginning in the 1960s, a movement called anti-psychiatry claimed that psychiatric patients are not ill but are individuals that do not share the same consensus reality as most people in society. ... The autism rights movement (which has also been called autistic self-advocacy movement [2] and autistic liberation movement [3]) was started by adult autistic individuals in order to advocate and demand tolerance for what they refer to as neurodiversity. ... Neurodiversity is a concept that atypical (neurodivergent) neurological wiring is a normal human difference that is to be tolerated and respected as any other human difference[citation needed]. The concept of neurodiversity was created by some autistic individuals and people with related conditions, who believe that autism is not a...

Fields such as social psychiatry, clinical psychology and sociology tend to offer non-biomedical accounts of mental distress and disorder and are sometimes critical of biopsychiatry. Furthermore, some scientist comment that psychiatry is a light science as that there isn't any tangible evidence for the diagnosis of mental disorders. Thus, biological psychiatry may be the key to bring psychiatry into the realm of actual science. The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... The Greek letter Psi is often used as a symbol of psychology. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

References

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2. ^ Webster's Dictionary definition of biological psychiatry. Webster's Dictionary.
3. ^ Purpose of Society of Biological Psychiatry. Society of Biological Psychiatry.
4. ^ Infoplease dictionary definition of Biological Psychiatry. Infoplease dictionary.
5. ^ ^{a b} Harvard/Cambridge psychiatric training syllabus. Dept. of Psychiatry Harvard Medical School.
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7. ^ Payk, T.R.. Historical treatment of depression. The Delano Report.
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9. ^ McEwen, B.S. (September 2005). "Stressed or stressed out: what is the difference?". Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience. PubMed. 
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14. ^ ^{a b c d} Depression: Beyond Serotonin. Psychology Today Magazine.
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24. ^ Larisch R, et al. (September 2004). "Depression and anxiety in different thyroid function states.". Hormone and Metabolic Research. PubMed. 
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29. ^ Korn, Martin L.. Serotonin and Norepinephrine Antidepressant Effects. Medscape.
30. ^ Ongür D., et al. (2004). "A role for glia in the action of electroconvulsive therapy.". Harvard Review of Psychiatry. PubMed. 
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32. ^ Warner-Schmidt J.L., et al. (2006). "Hippocampal neurogenesis: opposing effects of stress and antidepressant treatment.". Hippocampus. PubMed. 
33. ^ Perera, T.D. (2000). "Neurogenesis and depression.". Journal of Psychiatric Practice. PubMed. 
34. ^ Kodama M., et al. (2004). "Chronic olanzapine or fluoxetine administration increases cell proliferation in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of adult rat.". Biological Psychiatry. PubMed. 
35. ^ Duman, R.S. (2004). "Role of neurotrophic factors in the etiology and treatment of mood disorders.". Neuromolecular Medicine. PubMed. 
36. ^ Newton, S.S. (2005). "Regulation of neurogenesis and angiogenesis in depression.". Curr Neurovasc Res. PubMed. 
37. ^ http://www.umaine.edu/JMB/archives/volume11/11_3-4_1990summerautumn.html
38. ^ Breggin, Peter R. Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry. Springer Publishing.

April 20 is the 110th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (111th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ...

See also

• Biological psychology
• MindFreedom International
• Psychiatric survivors movement
• Psychiatry

• Anti-psychiatry

• TeenScreen
• Texas Medication Algorithm Project
• The Gene Illusion
• World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry

Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. ... A banner ad for MindFreedom International MindFreedom International is a coalition of over 100 grassroots groups and thousands of individual members in 14 nations committed to winning and protecting the human rights of people labeled with psychiatric disorders. ... A number of people considered ill and needing treatment by specific psychiatrists or psychiatric doctrine in general do not perceive benefit from the services offered or forced upon them. ... Psychiatrist redirects here. ... Beginning in the 1960s, a movement called anti-psychiatry claimed that psychiatric patients are not ill but are individuals that do not share the same consensus reality as most people in society. ... The TeenScreen logo TeenScreen is a national mental health and suicide risk screening program for students and adolescents. ... The Texas Medication Algorithm Project (TMAP) is a controversial corporate-sponsored set of psychiatric management guidelines designed to enable doctors to systematically screen and treat patients for diagnosed mental disorders within Texas publicly-funded mental health care system. ... The Gene Illusion [1] is a book by clinical psychologist Jay Joseph[2] which challenges the evidence underlying genetic theories in psychiatry and psychology. ... The World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry (WNUSP), originally founded in 1991 as the World Federation of Psychiatric Users (WFPU), is an international organisation of recipients of mental health services. ...

External links

• NYTimes.com - 'Study Finds a Link of Drug Makers to Psychiatrists', Benedict Carey, New York Times (April 20, 2006)
• PsychologyToday.com - 'Depression: Beyond Serotonin: Much more than a chemical imbalance, depression is a disorder of mind, brain, and body', Hara Estroff Marano, Psychology Today (March, 1999)