NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Biomedical research

Biomedical research (or experimental medicine), in general simply known as medical research, is the basic research or applied research conducted to aid the body of knowledge in the field of medicine. Medical research can be divided into two general categories: the evaluation of new treatments for both safety and efficacy in what are termed clinical trials, and all other research that contributes to the development of new treatments. The latter is termed preclinical research if its goal is specifically to elaborate knowledge for the development of new therapeutic strategies. For the suburb of Melbourne, Australia, see Research, Victoria. ... For the suburb of Melbourne, Australia, see Research, Victoria. ... For the chemical substances known as medicines, see medication. ... In health care, including medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is a process in which a medicine or other medical treatment is tested for its safety and effectiveness, often in comparison to existing treatments. ... Activities that need to be performed and results to be obtained a before a clinical trial in humans can begin. ...

The increased longevity of humans over the past century can be significantly attributed to advances resulting from medical research. Among the major benefits have been vaccines for measles and polio, insulin treatment for diabetes, classes of antibiotics for treating a host of maladies, medication for high blood pressure, improved treaments for AIDS, statins and other treatments for atherosclerosis, new surgical techniques such as microsurgery, and increasingly successful treatments for cancer. New, beneficial tests and treatments are expected as a result of the human genome project. Many challenges remain, however, including the appearance of antibiotic resistance and the obesity epidemic. A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to establish immunity to a disease. ... Poliomyelitis (polio), or infantile paralysis, is a viral paralytic disease. ... Not to be confused with inulin. ... This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ... Staphylococcus aureus - Antibiotics test plate. ... A sphygmomanometer, a device used for measuring arterial pressure. ... For other uses, see AIDS (disambiguation). ... Lovastatin, the first statin to be marketed The statins (or HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors) form a class of hypolipidemic agents, used as pharmaceutical agents to lower cholesterol levels in people with or at risk for cardiovascular disease. ... Microsurgery is a type of surgery where an operation microscope is required in order to perform opÃ©ratoire precision acts. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ... The Human Genome Projects (HGP) goal is to understand the genetic make-up of the human species by determining the DNA sequence of the human genome and the genome of a few model organisms. ... Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a microorganism to withstand the effects of an antibiotic. ...

Most of the research in the field is pursued by biomedical scientists in cooperation with molecular biologists. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. ...

1 Preclinical research
2 Clinical trials
- 2.1 Criticism
3 Funding
4 Regulations and guidelines
5 Fields of research
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading

Preclinical research

Preclinical research precedes the clinical trials, and is almost purely based on theory and animal experiments. Beagle being used to determine the toxicity of an industrial gas. ...

New treatments come about as a result of other, earlier discoveries — often unconnected to each other, and in various fields. Sometimes the research is done for non-medical purposes, and only by accident contributes to the field of medicine (for example, the discovery of penicillin). Clinicians use these discoveries to create a treatment regimen, which is then tested in clinical trials. For the Japanese rock band, see Penicillin (band). ...

Clinical trials

Main article: Clinical trial

These refer to any form of previously untested treatment for a particular pathology. This can take the form of a new surgical procedure, a new drug, or a new treatment regimen. These are extensively tested in clinical trials prior to widespread use. In health care, including medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is a process in which a medicine or other medical treatment is tested for its safety and effectiveness, often in comparison to existing treatments. ... A renal cell carcinoma (chromophobe type) viewed on a hematoxylin & eosin stained slide Pathologist redirects here. ... â€œSurgeonâ€ redirects here. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

If these trials have been well designed and are successfully duplicated by independent laboratories or field trials, then the papers can be reviewed by an independent body such as the Cochrane Collaboration to serve as an authoritative source of clinical guidance. The Cochrane Collaboration developed in response to Archie Cochranes call for systematic, up-to-date reviews (currently known as systematic reviews) of all relevant randomized clinical trials of health care. ...

Criticism

Many clinical research trials published are performed or sponsored by companies who have developed the drug or medical device being tested.^[1] Published studies, funded by companies with a financial incentive contingent on the result of the study, are more likely to show significant results than the results of studies funded by disinterested parties.^[2] The results from these corporate-sponsored trials are often subsequently used in direct to consumer sales and marketing campaigns, which may influence the use of the treatment or drug in a clinical setting, based solely on patient demand for treatments that they believe are effective.^[3] Direct-to-consumer advertising (DTC advertising) usually refers to the marketing of pharmaceutical products but can apply in other areas as well. ... A pharmaceutical company, or drug company, is a commercial business whose focus is to research, develop, market and/or distribute drugs, most commonly in the context of healthcare. ...

Bias in results can also occur when researchers involved in a clinical trial want to gain prestige, or believe that positive results obtained by a trial further a scientific hypothesis that they support.^[4] Look up Hypothesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Many companies work with recognised medical bodies to offer paid clinical trials. In 2006, a failed test in London caused multiple organ failure in six people.^[5] In response, British scientists defended the testing as one of the best regulated in the world.^[6] This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ...

Funding

Research funding in many countries comes from research bodies which distribute cash for equipment and salaries. In the UK, funding bodies such as the Medical Research Council and the Wellcome Trust derive their assets from UK tax payers, and distribute this to institutions in a competitive manner. Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of both hard science and technology, and social science. ... Current MRC logo The Medical Research Council (MRC) is a UK organisation dedicated to promot[ing] the balanced development of medical and related biological research in the UK. // The MRC is one of seven Research Councils and is answerable to, although politically independent from, the Office of Science and Innovation... The Wellcome Trusts Gibbs Building on Euston Road The Wellcome Trust is a United Kingdom-based charity established in 1936 to administer the fortune of the American-born pharmaceutical magnate Sir Henry Wellcome. ...

In the United States, the most recent data from 2003^[7] suggest that about 94 billion dollars were provided for biomedical research in the United States. The National Institutes of Health and pharmaceutical companies collectively contribute 26.4 billion dollars and 27.0 billion dollars, respectively, which constitute 28% and 29% of the total, respectively. Other significant contributors include biotechnology companies (17.9 billion dollars, 19% of total), medical device companies (9.2 billion dollars, 10% of total), other federal sources, and state and local governments. Foundations and charities, led by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, contributed about 3% of the funding. National Institutes of Health Building 50 at NIH Clinical Center - Building 10 The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical research. ... A pharmaceutical company, or drug company, is a commercial business whose focus is to research, develop, market and/or distribute drugs, most commonly in the context of healthcare. ... The structure of insulin Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. ... // European Definition COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 93/42/EEC of 14 June 1993 concerning medical devices defines a â€˜medical deviceâ€™ as: any instrument, apparatus, appliance, material or other article, whether used alone or in combination, including the software necessary for its proper application intended by the manufacturer to be used for human... The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is the worlds largest charitable foundation. ...

Regulations and guidelines

Medical research is highly regulated. National regulatory authorities oversee and monitor medical research, such as for the development of new drugs. In the USA the Food and Drug Administration oversees new drug development, in Europe the European Medicines Agency (see also EudraLex), and in Japan the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan). The World Medical Association develops the ethical standards for the medical profession, involved in medical research. The International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) works on the creation of rules and guidelines for the development of new medication, such as the guidelines for Good Clinical Practice (GCP). â€œFDAâ€ redirects here. ... The European Medicines Agency (EMEA) is a European agency for the evaluation of medicinal products. ... EudraLex is the collection of rules and regulations governing medicinal products in the European Union. ... The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (厚生労働省; Kōsei-rōdō-shō) is one of ministries in the Japanese government. ... The World Medical Association (WMA), an international organization of physicians, was formally established on 17 September 1947, pursuant to deliberations and decisions taken in the First General Assembly of WMA held in Paris, France. ... The International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) is a project that brings together the regulatory authorities of Europe, Japan and the United States and experts from the pharmaceutical industry in the three regions to discuss scientific and technical aspects of pharmaceutical... Good clinical practice is a set of rules and regulations that is provided by International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) - an international body that regulates clinical trials involving human subjects. ...

Fields of research

Fields of biomedical research include:

Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. ... Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine. ... A 1930 Soviet poster propagating breast care. ... Behavioral health was first used in the 1980s to name the combination of the fields mental health and substance abuse. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ... Ageing or aging is the process of getting older. ... Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones. ... Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system. ... This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ... Cell biology (cellular biology) is an academic discipline which studies the physiological properties of cells, as well as their behaviours, interactions, and environment; this is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. ... Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. ... Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmakon (Ï†Î¬ÏÎ¼Î±ÎºÎ¿Î½) meaning drug, and lego (Î»ÎÎ³Ï‰) to tell (about)) is the study of how drugs interact with living organisms to produce a change in function. ... Psychopharmacology is the study of the effects of any psychoactive drug that acts upon the mind by affecting brain chemistry. ... Drawing of the cells in the chicken cerebellum by S. RamÃ³n y Cajal Neuroscience is a field that is devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system. ... This article is about the general scientific term. ... Virology, often considered a part of microbiology or of pathology, is the study of organic viruses: their structure and classification, their ways to infect and exploit cells to reproduce and cause disease, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their potential uses in research and therapy. ...

References

^ Adams C, Rathbone J, Thornley B, Clarke M, Borrill J, Wahlbeck K, Awad A. "Chlorpromazine for schizophrenia: a Cochrane systematic review of 50 years of randomised controlled trials.". BMC Med 3: 15. PMID 16229742.
^ Als-Nielsen B, Chen W, Gluud C, Kjaergard L (2003). "Association of funding and conclusions in randomized drug trials: a reflection of treatment effect or adverse events?". JAMA 290 (7): 921-8. PMID 12928469.
^ Vitry, Agnes (2004;27:4-6). Is Australia free from direct-to-customer advertising. Australian Prescriber. Retrieved on 2006-10-05.
^ Ioannidis J (2005). "Why most published research findings are false.". PLoS Med 2 (8): e124. PMID 16060722.
^ Six taken ill after drug trials
^ Scientist defends clinical trials
^ Moses H, Dorsey E, Matheson D, Thier S (2005). "Financial anatomy of biomedical research.". JAMA 294 (11): 1333-42. PMID 16174691.

Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see 5th October (Serbia). ...

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