Bladder stones in animals are a common occurrence, especially in domestic animals such as dogs and cats. The stones form in the urinary bladder in varying size and numbers secondary to infection, dietary influences, and genetics. Stones, or uroliths, can form in any part of the urinary tract in dogs and cats, but unlike in humans, stones of the kidney are less common and do not often cause significant disease, although they can contribute to pyelonephritis and chronic renal failure. Types of stones include struvite, calcium oxalate, urate, cystine, calcium phosphate, and silicate. Struvite and calcium oxalate stones are by far the most common. Trinomial name Canis lupus familiaris The dog is a mammal in the order Carnivora. ... Trinomial name Felis silvestris catus (Linnaeus, 1758) The cat, also called the domestic cat or house cat, is a small carnivorous mammal of the subspecies Felis silvestris catus. ... In the anatomy of mammals, the urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. ... A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection of the urinary tract. ... Genetics (from the Greek genno γεννώ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ... Human kidneys viewed from behind with spine removed The kidneys are bean-shaped excretory organs in vertebrates. ... Pyelonephritis is an ascending urinary tract infection that has reached the pyelum (pelvis) of the kidney (nephros in Greek). ... Struvite is an ammonium magnesium phosphate mineral with formula: (NH4)MgPO4·6(H2O). ... Calcium oxalate is a chemical compound that forms needle-shaped crystals. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Cystine is an oxidized dimeric form of cysteine. ... Calcium phosphate is the name given to a family of minerals containing calcium ions (Ca2+) together with orthophosphates (PO43-), metaphosphates or pyrophosphates (P2O74-) and occasionally hydrogen or hydroxide ions. ... In chemistry, a silicate is a compound consisting of silicon and oxygen (SixOy), one or more metals, and possibly hydrogen. ...

X-ray of bladder stones in a dog

Formation of bladder stones

Oversaturation of urine with crystals is by the far the biggest factor in stone formation.^[1] This oversaturation can be caused by increased excretion of crystals by the kidneys, water reabsorption by the renal tubules resulting in concentration of the urine, and changes in urine pH that influence crystallization. The stones form around a nidus, which can consist of white blood cells, bacteria, and organic matrix mixed with crystals, or crystals alone. It is possible for the nidus to be made of a different type of crystal than the rest of the stone, also known as epitaxial growth. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Nephron of the kidney A nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. ... The title of this article should be pH. The initial letter is capitalized due to technical restrictions. ... White blood cells (a. ... Subgroups Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Epitaxy is the growth of crystals of one material on the crystal face of another (heteroepitaxy) or the same (homoepitaxy) material, such that the two materials have a defined relative structural orientation. ...

Symptoms

Bladder stones can cause no symptoms at all or cause blood in the urine (hematuria), painful urination, or straining to urinate. Urinary tract infections are commonly associated with bladder stones. Smaller stones may become lodged in the urethra, especially in male animals, causing urinary tract obstruction. This condition causes acute renal failure, hyperkalemia, septicemia, and death within a few days. In medicine, hematuria (or haematuria) is the presence of blood in the urine. ... Female anatomy In anatomy, the urethra is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. ... Urinary retention is a lack of ability to urinate. ... Hyperkalemia (hyper is high, kalium is the Latin name for potassium) is an elevated blood level (above 5. ... Sepsis (in Greek Σήψις) is a serious medical condition caused by a severe systemic infection leading to a systemic inflammatory response. ...

Diagnosis

When symptoms indicate bladder stones, the first step is usually to take an x-ray. Most types of stones will appear readily in an x-ray, urate stones being the most common exception. Ultrasonography is also useful for identifying bladder stones. Crystals identified in a urinalysis may help identify the stones, but analysis of the stones is necessary for identification of the complete chemical composition. In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... Medical ultrasonography is an ultrasound-based imaging diagnostic technique used to visualize internal organs, their size, structure and their pathological lesions. ... A urinalysis (or UA) is an array of tests performed on urine and one of the most common methods of medical diagnosis. ...

Treatment

Reasons for treatment of bladder stones include recurring symptoms and risk of urinary tract obstruction. Some stones can be dissolved using dietary modifications and/or medications. Small stones in female dogs may possibly be removed by urohydropropulsion, a nonsurgical procedure. Urohydropropulsion is performed under sedation by filling the bladder with saline through a catheter, holding the dog vertically, and squeezing the bladder to expel the stones through the urethra. Bladder stones can be removed surgically by a cystotomy, opening of the bladder. Stones lodged in the urethra can often be flushed into the bladder and removed, but sometimes a urethrotomy is necessary. In male dogs with recurrent urinary tract obstruction a scrotal urethrostomy creates a permanent opening in the urethra proximal to the area where most stones lodge, behind the os penis. In male cats, stones lodge where the urethra narrows in the penis. Recurrent cases can be treated surgically with a perineal urethrostomy, which removes the penis and creates a new upening for the urethra. Subincision is a form of body modification consisting of a urethrotomy, in which the underside of the penis is incised and the urethra slit open lengthwise, from the urethral opening (meatus) toward the base. ...

To prevent recurrence of stones, special diets can be used for each type of stone. Increasing water consumption by the animal dilutes the urine, which prevents oversaturation of the urine with crystals.

Types of bladder stones

Struvite stones

Struvite stones

Struvite stones are also known as magnesium ammonium phosphate stones due to their chemical composition - MgNH₄PO₄.6H₂0. Often there is a small amount of calcium phospahate present. ^[2] They form at a neutral to alkaline pH of the urine. Bacterial infections contribute to their formation by increasing the pH of the urine through the urease enzyme in dogs, but not usually in cats. The appearance of the stones vary from large solitary stones to multiple smaller stones. They can assume the shape of the bladder or urethra. Struvite is an ammonium magnesium phosphate mineral with formula: (NH4)MgPO4·6(H2O). ... Helicobacter Pylori Urease drawn from PDB 1E9Z. Urease (EC 3. ...

Dissolution of the struvite stones depends on acidifiaction of the urine through diet or urinary acidifiers. Special diets for dissolution also have reduced protein, phosphorus, and magnesium, as well as increased salt to increase water consumption and dilute the urine. The diet needs to be fed exclusively, but it can only be fed for a few months total due to potential side effects. Prevention of struvite stones is with a similar diet with milder restrictions. These are inorganic chemicals used to produce or become acid. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... General Name, Symbol, Number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, Period, Block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 24. ...

Certain dog breeds are predisposed to struvite stones, including Miniature Schnauzers, Bichon Frises, and Cocker Spaniels.^[1] They are the most commonly reported bladder stone in female dogs^[3] and in ferrets (pregnant ferrets may be especially predisposed).^[4] The Miniature Schnauzer is a breed of small dog of the Schnauzer type that originated in Germany in the mid-to-late 19th century. ... Country of origin Belgium / France / Mediterranean region Classification Breed standards (external links) FCI, AKC, ANKC, CKC KC(UK), NZKC, UKC A Bichon Fris (French, literally Curly lap dog; often spelled Bichon Frise in English) is a small dog that is the size of a large cat. ... Both types of Cocker Spaniel come in a variety of coat colors. ... Trinomial name Mustela putorius furo (Linnaeus, 1758) In general use, a ferret is a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo), a creature first bred from the wild European polecat or steppe polecat at least 2,500 years ago. ...

Calcium oxalate stones

Calcium oxalate stones

Calcium oxalate stones form in an acidic to neutral urine. Their appearance can be rough, smooth, spiculated, or jackstone. Calcium oxalate stones form more readily in animals with hypercalcaemia, which can caused by Addison's disease or certain types of cancer. Hypercalcaemia results in hypercalciuria, which can also be caused by Cushing's syndrome or hyperparathyroidism. Calcium oxalate is a chemical compound that forms needle-shaped crystals. ... Spicules are skeletal structures that appear in some types of sponges. ... Jacks, sometimes called fivestones or onesies, is a playground game for children. ... Hypercalcaemia is an elevated calcium level in the blood. ... Addisons disease (also known as chronic adrenal insufficiency, or hypocortisolism) is a rare endocrine disorder. ... When normal cells are damaged beyond repair, they are eliminated by apoptosis. ... Hyperparathyroidism is overactivity of the parathyroid glands resulting in excess production of parathyroid hormone (PTH). ...

There is no recommended diet to dissolve calcium oxalate stones. For prevention a diet low in protein and oxalates and high in magnesium, phosphorus, and calcium is recommended. Increased dietary magnesium and phosphorus decreases the amount of calcium in the urine, and increased dietary calcium reduces absorption of oxalates from the intestines.^[3] Potassium citrate has been recommended as a preventative for calcium oxalate stone formation because it forms a soluble complex with oxalates and promotes the formation of alkaline urine.^[1] The oxalate (also ethanedioate) ion is (COO)22− (oxalic acid minus two hydrogen ions). ... Potassium Citrate may be used to control Uric acid kidney stones. ...

Dog breeds possible prone to calcium oxalate stones include Miniature Schnauzers, Lhasa Apsos, Yorkshire Terriers, Miniature Poodles, Shih Tzus, and Bichon Frises.^[1] They are the most common stone in male dogs.^[3] Calcium oxalate stones are also the most common stones in cats. It used to be that struvite stones were more common in cats, but commercial cat food manufacturers have made adjustments to prevent struvite formation.^[5] Calcium oxalate stones are also common in domestic rabbits. Rabbits are prone to hypercalciuria due to intestinal absorption of calcium not being dependent on vitamin D and a high fractional urinary excretion of calcium.^[4] The urine will appear thick and creamy or sometimes sandy. Small stones and sand can be removed using urohydropropulsion. Prevention is through reducing calcium intake by feeding more hay and less commercial rabbit pellets, and by not using mineral supplements. The Lhasa Apso is a small breed of dog originally from Tibet. ... The Yorkshire Terrier, also known as a Yorkie, is a breed of small dog, one of many toy dog breeds. ... The Poodle is a breed of dog; specifically, it is a gundog noted for its ability in the water. ... The Shih Tzu or Shih Tsu (獅子狗 pinyin: Shīzi Gǒu, Wade-Giles: Shih-tzu Kou) is a breed of dog originating in Tibet. ... A Netherland dwarf breed domestic rabbit. ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ...

Urate stones

Urate stones

Urate stones, usually ammonium urate, form in an acidic to neutral urine. They are usually small, yellow-brown, smooth stones. Urate stones form due to an increased excretion of uric acid in the urine. Dalmatians and to a lesser extent English Bulldogs are genetically predisposed to the formation of urate stones because of an altered metabolism of purines. Dogs with portosystemic shunts or endstage liver disease also have increased uric acid excretion in the urine due to reduced conversion of uric acid to allantoin and ammonia to urea. Uric Acid Uric acid is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen, with the formula C5H4N4O3 It is a minor end-product of nitrogen metabolism in the human body (the main product being urea), and is found in small amounts in urine. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... A Dalmatian is a breed of dog, noted for its white coat with (usually) black spots. ... Country of origin United Kingdom Classification Breed standards (external links) FCI, AKC, ANKC KC(UK), NZKC, UKC The English Bulldog, often called simply the Bulldog, is a medium-sized dog breed that originated in the United Kingdom. ... Purine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound, consisting of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. ... Allantoin is a botanical extract of the comfrey plant and is used for its healing, soothing, and anti-irritating properties. ... Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. ... Urea is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen, with the formula CON2H4 or (NH2)2CO. Urea is also known as carbamide, especially in the recommended International Non-proprietary Names (rINN) in use in Europe. ...

Urate stones can be dissolved using a diet with reduced purines that alkalinizes and dilutes the urine. Allopurinol is used in dogs with altered purine metabolism to prevent the formation of uric acid. Allopurinol is a white, powdery drug used to treat gout. ...

Cystine stones

Cystine stones form in an acidic to neutral urine. They are usually smooth and round. They are caused by increased urine excretion of cystine. Dietary reduction of protein and alkalinization of the urine may help prevent formation. Medications such as D-penicillamine and 2-MPG contain thiol, which forms a soluble complex with cystine in the urine.^[3] Dog breeds possibly predisposed to formation of cystine stones include English Bulldogs, Dachshunds, and Basset Hounds.^[1] Cystine is an oxidized dimeric form of cysteine. ... Penicillamine is a pharmaceutical of the chelator class. ... In organic chemistry, a thiol is a compound that contains the functional group composed of a sulfur atom and a hydrogen atom (-SH). ... The Dachshund is a short-legged, elongated dog breed of the hound family. ... The Basset Hound is a short-legged breed of dog of the hound family. ...

Calcium phosphate stones

Calcium phosphate stones form in neutral to alkaline urine. They are usually smooth and round. Calcium phosphate is usually a component of struvite or calcium oxalate stones and is infrequently a pure stone. They form more readily with hypercalcaemia. Dog breeds possibly predisposed to calcium phosphate stone formation include Yorkshire Terriers, Miniature Schnauzers, and Cocker Spaniels.^[1] Calcium phosphate is the name given to a family of minerals containing calcium ions (Ca2+) together with orthophosphates (PO43-), metaphosphates or pyrophosphates (P2O74-) and occasionally hydrogen or hydroxide ions. ...

Silicate stones

Silicate stones form in acidic to neutral urine. They are usually jackstone in appearance. There is possibly an increased incidence associated with dogs on diets that have a large amount of corn gluten or soybean hulls. Dog breeds possibly predisposed include German Shepherd Dogs, Golden Retrievers , Labrador Retrievers, and Miniature Schnauzers.^[1] In chemistry, a silicate is a compound consisting of silicon and oxygen (SixOy), one or more metals, and possibly hydrogen. ... Jacks, sometimes called fivestones or onesies, is a playground game for children. ... Wheat - a prime source of gluten Gluten is an amorphous ergastic protein found combined with starch in the endosperm of some cereals, notably wheat, rye, and barley. ... Binomial name Glycine max (L.) Merr. ... The German Shepherd Dog or Alsatian is a breed of dog. ... The Golden Retriever is a relatively modern and very popular breed of dog. ... The Labrador Retriever (Labrador or Lab for short), is one of several kinds of retriever, and is the most popular breed of dog (by registered ownership) in both the United States and the United Kingdom. ...

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Ettinger, Stephen J.;Feldman, Edward C. (1995). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 4th ed., W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 0-7216-6795-3.
2. ^ Buffington, Tony (2004). Nutrition and Urolithiasis. Proceedings of the 29th World Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Retrieved on 2006-07-16.
3. ^ ^a b c d Zoran, Debra L. (2006). "Role of Diet in Feline and Canine Urolithiasis". Western Veterinary Conference Proceedings.
4. ^ ^a b Hillyer, Elizabeth V.;Quesenberry, Katherin E. (1997). Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 1st ed., W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 0-7216-4023-0.
5. ^ Osborne, Carl, Lulich, Jody (2005-04-01). "Trends change in composition of feline uroliths". DVM. Retrieved on 2006-07-16.