It is generally accepted that Aramaic was the mother tongue of Jesus. This article explores the use of Aramaic in the New Testament, as attributed to Jesus and others. Aramaic is a Semitic language with a 3,000-year history. ... First language (native language, mother tongue, or vernacular) is the language a person learns first. ... This 11th-century portrait is one of many images of Jesus in which a halo with a cross is used. ... The New Testament, sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures is the name given to the part of the Christian Bible that was written after the birth of Jesus. ...

This 11th-century portrait is one of many images of Jesus in which a halo with a cross is used. ... A large variety of names and titles have been used to describe Jesus, many of which reflect various theological understandings or different beliefs about him. ... This article presents a description of Jesus life, as based on the four gospels. ... According to the canonical Gospels, Jesus also called Christ worked many miracles in the course of his ministry. ... According to the New Testament, especially the Gospels, Jesus, also called Christ, had the power to lay his life down and to take it up again, being both human and God as well as the Promised Messiah. ... Among historians who are Christian Biblical scholars, the literature suggests the following detailed timeline for Jesus. ...                       The month, day or even year of Jesus birth cannot be exactly ascertained. ... The status of Jesus the Christ in theology varies widely from religion to religion. ... The historical existence of Jesus, known by Christians as Jesus Christ (Jesus the Messiah) and by Muslims as Isa (عيسى), is accepted by the followers of two world religions, Christianity and Islam, on the basis of their respective scriptures - the Bible and the Quran. ... This article presents a critical reconstruction of the Historical Jesus, as based on the four canonical gospels. ... As historian E. P. Sanders has observed, of all the religions that existed within the Roman Empire, only two have widespread followings today: Rabbinic Judaism and Christianity, both of which have their origins in Roman-occupied Palestine, both of which claim to be based on the Hebrew Bible/New Testament... There are no undisputed historical images of Jesus; he sat for no portraits which are preserved and of unquestioned authenticity and undoubted provenance. ... Various authors and filmmakers have created dramatic portrayals of Jesus and his life. ...

Cultural and linguistic background

Evidence from 1st century Galilee and Judaea shows that Aramaic was the main language of the native population. Evidence from within the New Testament supports this view by giving place names and some words of Jesus in Aramaic. (1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century - other centuries) The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100. ... Galilee (Hebrew hagalil הגליל, Arabic al-jaleel الجليل), meaning circuit, is a large area overlappping with much of the North District of Israel. ... Desert hills in southern Judea, looking east from the town of Arad Judea or Judaea (יהודה Praise, Standard Hebrew Yəhuda, Tiberian Hebrew Yəhûḏāh) is a term used for the mountainous southern part of historic Palestine, an area now divided between Israel, Jordan and the West Bank. ... The New Testament, sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures is the name given to the part of the Christian Bible that was written after the birth of Jesus. ...

It is likely that Jesus also knew some Greek, as it had been the lingua franca of the Near East for three centuries, and was the language used in the administration of the eastern parts of the Roman Empire. Lingua franca, literally Frankish language in Italian, was originally a mixed language consisting largely of Italian plus a vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek and Arabic and used for communication throughout the Middle East. ... The Near East is a term commonly used by archaeologists and historians, less commonly by journalists and commentators, to refer to the region encompassing the Levant (modern Israel, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon), Anatolia (modern Turkey), Mesopotamia (Iraq and eastern Syria), and the Iranian Plateau (Iran). ... The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Ancient Roman polity in the centuries following its reorganization under the leadership of Octavian (better known as Caesar Augustus). ...

Jesus may have spoken some Hebrew, but there is little evidence either from within the New Testament or beyond to support this. By Jesus' lifetime, Hebrew had become the preserve of an elite of scholars and had ceased to be a living language. Most people could recognise words that were similar to Aramaic, and knew a few religious terms, but little more than that. Hebrew is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family spoken by 6 million people mainly in Israel, parts of the Palestinian territories, the United States and by Jewish communities around the world. ...

One or two words of Latin may have been known to Jesus. However, these were probably learned through the medium of Greek, and were confined to various symbols of Roman rule ('denarius' for example). Latin is the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ...

Aramaic phrases in the Greek New Testament

Within the text of the Greek New Testament a few words and phrases in Aramaic are included untranslated. These are mainly words of Jesus, and perhaps had a special significance because of this.

A small minority believe that the majority, or the whole, of the New Testament was originally written in Aramaic. This position, called Aramaic primacy, is popular, but most scholars see the Old Syriac and Peshitta versions of the New Testament as clearly based on the Greek. However, the fact remains that there does exist a layer of Aramaic-speaking culture beneath the Greek text, and that agreed point is what is discussed here. Aramaic Primacists believe that the Christian New Testament and/or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language, not Koine Greek as is generally claimed. ... The Peshitta is the standard version of the Bible in the Syriac language. ...

Talitha koum

Mark 5:41 The Gospel of Mark is the second in the familiar sequence of the New Testament Gospels, as they were established by Jerome and appear in many but not all early manuscripts of complete gospels, and as they are commonly printed. ...

And taking the hand of the child, he said to her, "Talitha koum", which is translated, "Little girl, I say to you, get up".

This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, supposedly used by Jesus in the healing of a girl, with a translation into Greek. The Greek transliteration of the phrase is ταλιθα κουμ.

The most dependable Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) of Mark's Gospel have this text, but a few (Codex Alexandrinus, the Majority Text and the Vulgate) write κουμι (koumi) instead. The latter became the Textus Receptus, and is the version that appears in the Authorised Version. Codex Sinaiticus (London, Brit. ... A section of the Codex Vaticanus, containing 1 Esdras 2:1-8 The Codex Vaticanus (The Vatican, Bibl. ... Folio 65v from the Codex Alexandrinus contains the end of the Gospel of Luke with the decorative tailpiece found at the end of each book. ... The Byzantine text-type (also called Constantinopolitan, Syrian, ecclesiastical, and majority) is the largest group of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. ... The Vulgate Bible is an early 5th century translation of the Bible into Latin made by St. ... Textus Receptus (Latin: Received Text) is the name given to the first Greek text of the New Testament to be printed with movable type. ... This page is about the version of the Bible; for the Harvey Danger album, see King James Version (album). ...

The Aramaic is ţlîthâ qûm. The word 'ţlîthâ' is the feminine form of the word 'ţlê', meaning 'young'. 'Qûm' is the Aramaic verb 'to rise, get up'. In the feminine singular imperative, it was originally 'qûmî'. However, there is evidence that in speech the final 'î' was dropped so that the imperative did not distinguish between masculine and feminine genders. The older manuscripts, therefore, used a Greek spelling that reflected pronunciation, whereas the addition of an 'ι' was perhaps due to a bookish copyist.

Ephphatha

Mark 7:34 The Gospel of Mark is the second in the familiar sequence of the New Testament Gospels, as they were established by Jerome and appear in many but not all early manuscripts of complete gospels, and as they are commonly printed. ...

And looking up to heaven, he sighed and said to him, "Ephphatha", which is 'be opened'.

Once again, the Aramaic word is given with a translation. In Greek, the Aramaic is written εφφαθα. This is from the Aramaic 'ethpthaħ', the passive imperative of the verb 'pthaħ', 'to open'.

Abba

Mark 14:36 The Gospel of Mark is the second in the familiar sequence of the New Testament Gospels, as they were established by Jerome and appear in many but not all early manuscripts of complete gospels, and as they are commonly printed. ...

And he said, Abba, Father, all things are possible unto thee; take away this cup from me: nevertheless not what I will, but what thou wilt.

Abba, an Aramaic word (written Αββα in Greek, and 'abbā in Aramaic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent (Πατηρ) with no explicit mention of it being a translation. The phrase Abba, Father is repeated in Romans 8:15 and Galatians 4:6. The Epistle to the Romans is one of the epistles, or letters, included in the New Testament canon of the Christian Bible. ... The Epistle to Galatians is a book of the Bible New Testament. ...

Eli Eli lema sabachthani

Matthew 27:46 The Gospel of Matthew (literally: according to Matthew, Grk: kata Maththaion) is one of the four Gospel accounts of the New Testament. ...

Around the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud voice, saying "Eli Eli lema sabachthani?" which is, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?"

Mark 15:34 The Gospel of Mark is the second in the familiar sequence of the New Testament Gospels, as they were established by Jerome and appear in many but not all early manuscripts of complete gospels, and as they are commonly printed. ...

And at the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud voice, "Eloi Eloi lema sabachthani?" which is translated, "My God, my God, for what have you forsaken me?"

This phrase, shouted by Jesus from the cross, is given to us in these two versions. The Matthean version of the phrase is transliterated in Greek as ηλι ηλι λεμα σαβαχθανι. The Markan version is similar, but begins ελωι ελωι.

Jesus seems to be quoting the first line of Psalm 22. However, he is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version (êlî êlî lâmâ `^azabtânî), but is using an Aramaic translation of it (see targum). Psalms (Tehilim תהילים, in Hebrew) is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, and of the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. ... A targum (plural: targumim) is an Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) written or compiled in the Land of Israel or in Babylonia from the Second Temple period until the early Middle Ages (late first millennium). ...

In the following verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus' cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah (Eliyyâ). This is perhaps to underline the incomprehension of the bystanders about what is happening. Matthew's use of ηλι may indicate a more 'official' rendition of the psalm verse, more in line with the Hebrew. Mark's version probably represents the Aramaic colloquial better. The Aramaic behind Matthew is êlî êlî lmâ švaqtanî. Whereas Mark has elohî elohî. Elijah (אֱלִיָּהוּ Whose/my God is the Lord, Standard Hebrew Eliyyáhu, Tiberian Hebrew ʾĔliyyāhû), also Elias (NT Greek Ἠλίας), is a prophet of the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament. ...

A few ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of trying to normalise this text. For instance, the peculiar Codex Bezae renders both versions with ηλι ηλι λαμα ζαφθανι (êli êli lama zaphthani). The Codex Bezae Cantabrigensis (Gregory-Aland no. ...

As the phrase is clearly translated into Greek in both instances there can be little doubt as to its meaning. However, a minority have speculated on different meanings, among them is George Lamsa, but his methodology has been shown to be seriously flawed. The Aramaic word švaqtanî is based on the verb švaq, 'to leave, forget', with the perfect tense ending -t (2nd person singular: 'you'), and the object suffix -anî (1st person singular: 'me'). A native Aramaic speaker, Dr. George M. Lamsa (August 5, 1892 – September 22, 1975) was born in Mar Bishu in what is now the extreme east of Turkey. ...

This phrase is treated in more depth at Last sayings of Jesus. The seven words of Jesus on the cross are a traditional collection of seven short phrases uttered by Jesus at his crucifixion gathered from the four Gospels. ...

Aramaic personal names in the New Testament

Personal names in the New Testament come from a number of languages, Hebrew and Greek are most common. However, there are a good few Aramaic names as well. The most prominent feature in Aramaic names is 'bar' (Greek transliteration βαρ, Aramaic bar), meaning 'son of', a common patronym prefix. Its Hebrew equivalent, 'ben', is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are: A patronymic is a personal name based on the name of ones father. ...

• Matthew 10:3 — Bartholomew (Βαρθολομαιος from bar-Tôlmay, perhaps 'son of furrows' or 'ploughman').
• Matthew 16:17 — Simon bar-Jona (Σιμων Βαριωνας from Šim`ôn bar-Yônâ, 'Simon son of Jonah').
• Matthew 27:16 — Barabbas (Βαραββας from bar-Abbâ, 'son of the father').
• Mark 10:46 — Bartimaeus (Βαρτιμαιος from bar-Ţim'ay, perhaps 'son of defilement' or 'son of a whore').
• Acts 1:23 — Barsabbas (Βαρσαββας from bar-Šabbâ, 'son of the Sabbath').
• Acts 4:36 — Joseph who is called Barnabas (Βαρναβας from bar-Navâ meaning 'son of prophecy, the prophet', but given the Greek translation υιος παρακλησεως; usually translated as 'son of consolation/encouragement', the Greek could mean 'invocation' as well).
• Acts 13:6 — Bar-Jesus (Βαριησους from bar-Yêšû`, 'son of Jesus/Joshua').

Michelangelos The Last Judgement shows Saint Bartholomew holding the knife of his martyrdom and his flayed skin. ... In both Judaism and Christianity, the Sabbath (Hebrew Shabbat) is a religious day of rest that occurs on the seventh day of the week, Saturday. ... (In effect, everything that was contributed by an anon editor at IP 80. ...

Boanerges

Mark 3:17 The Gospel of Mark is the second in the familiar sequence of the New Testament Gospels, as they were established by Jerome and appear in many but not all early manuscripts of complete gospels, and as they are commonly printed. ...

And James, the son of Zebedee, and John, the brother of James, and he gave them the name Boanerges, which is Sons of Thunder.

Jesus surnames the brothers James and John to reflect their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is Βοανηργες (Boanêrges).

There has been much speculation about this name. Given the Greek translation that comes with it ('Sons of Thunder'), it seems that the first element of the name is 'bnê', 'sons of' (the plural of 'bar'). This is represented by βοανη (boanê), giving two vowels in the first syllable where one would be sufficient. It could be inferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not be a good one. The second part of the name is often reckoned to be 'rğaš' ('tumult') or 'rğaz' ('anger'). Maurice Casey, however, argues that it is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, 'r`am' (due to the similarity of s to the final m). This is supported by one Syriac translation of the name as 'bnay ra`mâ'. However, the Peshitta reads 'bnay rğešy'. Syriac is an Eastern Aramaic language that was once spoken across much of the Fertile Crescent. ... The Peshitta is the standard version of the Bible in the Syriac language. ...

Cephas

John 1:42 The Gospel of John is the fourth gospel in the sequence of the canon as printed in the New Testament, and scholars agree it was the fourth to be written. ...

He brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, "You are Simon son of John, you shall be called Cephas", which is translated 'Peter'.

1 Corinthians 1:12 (Redirected from 1 Corinthians) See also: Second Epistle to the Corinthians and Third Epistle to the Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ...

But I say that each of you says "I am of Paul", or "I am of Apollos", or "I am of Cephas", or "I am of Christ".

In these two passages, 'Cephas' is given as the nickname of the apostle better known as Peter. The Greek word is transliterated Κηφας (Kêphas).

The apostle's given name appears to be Simon, and he is given the Aramaic nickname, kêfâ or kîfâ, meaning 'rock'. The final sigma (s) is added in Greek to make the name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning of the name was more important than the name itself is evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek translation, Πετρος (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Simon Peter when he writes to the church in Corinth. Perhaps, he is writing at a time before Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter. Temple of Apollo at Corinth Corinth, or Korinth (Κόρινθος) is a Greek city, on the Isthmus of Corinth, the original isthmus, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. ...

Thomas

John 11:16 The Gospel of John is the fourth gospel in the sequence of the canon as printed in the New Testament, and scholars agree it was the fourth to be written. ...

Then Thomas, who was called Didymus, said to his co-disciples, "Now let us go that we might die with him!"

Thomas (Θωμας) is listed among the disciples of Jesus in all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it is only in John's Gospel that more information is given. In three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2) he is given the name Didymus (Διδυμος), the Greek word for a twin. In fact, 'the Twin' is not just a surname, it is a translation of 'Thomas'. 'Thomas' comes from the Aramaic 'tômâ', 'twin'. Therefore, rather than two personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nickname, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the personal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to distinguish him from others of the same name. The Incredulity of Saint Thomas by Caravaggio. ...

Tabitha

Acts 9:36 The Acts of the Apostles, (Greek Praxeis Apostolon) is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. ...

In Joppa, there was a disciple named Tabitha, which is translated Dorcas.

The disciple's name is given both in Aramaic (Ταβιθα) and Greek (Δορκας). The Aramaic name is a transliteration of Ţvîthâ. Both names mean 'gazelle'.

It may be just coincidence that Peter's words to her in verse 40, "Tabitha, get up!" (Ταβιθα αναστηθι), are similar to the 'talitha koum' phrase used by Jesus. Saint Peter, portrayed by Peter Paul Rubens in a papal chasuble and pallium holding keys, was one of the twelve disciples of Jesus and the first Pope of the Catholic Church. ... It is generally accepted that Aramaic was the mother tongue of Jesus. ...

Aramaic place names in the New Testament

Gethsemane

Matthew 26:36 The Gospel of Matthew (literally: according to Matthew, Grk: kata Maththaion) is one of the four Gospel accounts of the New Testament. ...

Then Jesus went with them to a place called Gethsemane.

Mark 14:32 The Garden of Gethsemane. ... The Gospel of Mark is the second in the familiar sequence of the New Testament Gospels, as they were established by Jerome and appear in many but not all early manuscripts of complete gospels, and as they are commonly printed. ...

And they went to a place that has the name Gethsemane.

The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before his arrest is given the Greek transliteration Γεθσημανι (Gethsêmani). It represents the Aramaic 'Gath-Šmânê', meaning 'the oil press' or 'oil vat' (referring to olive oil). The Garden of Gethsemane. ...

Golgotha

Mark 15:22 The Gospel of Mark is the second in the familiar sequence of the New Testament Gospels, as they were established by Jerome and appear in many but not all early manuscripts of complete gospels, and as they are commonly printed. ...

And they took him up to the place Golgotha, which is translated Place of the Skull.

John 19:17 Calvary (Golgotha) was the hill outside Jerusalem on which Jesus was crucified. ... The Gospel of John is the fourth gospel in the sequence of the canon as printed in the New Testament, and scholars agree it was the fourth to be written. ...

And carrying his cross by himself, he went out to the so-called Place of the Skull, which is called in 'Hebrew' Golgotha.

This is clearly Aramaic rather than Hebrew. 'Gûlgaltâ' is the Aramaic for 'skull'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply 'the Skull', with no Aramaic. The name 'Calvary' is taken from the Latin Vulgate translation, Calvaria. Calvary (Golgotha) was the hill outside Jerusalem on which Jesus was crucified. ... Calvary (Golgotha) is the English-language name given to the hill outside Jerusalem on which Jesus was crucified according to Christian tradition. ... The Vulgate Bible is an early 5th century translation of the Bible into Latin made by St. ...

Akeldama

Acts 1:19 The Acts of the Apostles, (Greek Praxeis Apostolon) is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. ...

And this became known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so that field was called, in their own dialect, Akeldama, that is Field of Blood.

The place of Judas Iscariot's suicide is clearly named Field of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition gives a number of different spellings of the Aramaic. The Majority Text reads Ακελδαμα ([H]akeldama); other manuscript versions give Αχελδαμα ([H]acheldama), Ακελδαιμα ([H]akeldaima), Ακελδαμακ ([H]akeldamak) and Ακελδαμαχ ([H]akeldamach). Despite these variant spellings the Aramaic is most probably 'ħqêl dmâ', 'field of blood'. Judas Iscariot (died April AD 29–33, Hebrew יהודה איש־קריות YÉ™hûḏāh ʾΚ-qÉ™riyyôṯ) was, according to the New Testament, one of twelve original apostles of Jesus, and the one who ultimately betrayed him. ... The Byzantine text-type (also called Constantinopolitan, Syrian, ecclesiastical, and majority) is the largest group of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. ...