Borobudur
Shown within Java Topography
Building information
Location	near Magelang, Central Java
Country	Indonesia
Coordinates	7°36′29″S 110°12′00″E / -7.608, 110.20Coordinates: 7°36′29″S 110°12′00″E / -7.608, 110.20
Architect	Gunadharma
Completion date	circa AD 800
Style	stupa and candi

Borobudur is a ninth century Buddhist Mahayana monument in Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues.^[1] A main dome is located at the center of the top platform, and is surrounded by seventy-two Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa. Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 517 pixelsFull resolution (2546 × 1644 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Red_pog2. ... Magelang is the largest town in the Kedu Plain between Mount Merbabu and Mount Sumbing in Central Java, Indonesia. ... Central Java (Indonesian: Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia. ... Map of Earth showing lines of latitude (horizontally) and longitude (vertically), Eckert VI projection; large version (pdf, 1. ... Map of Earth showing lines of latitude (horizontally) and longitude (vertically), Eckert VI projection; large version (pdf, 1. ... Gunadharma or Gunadarma is the architect of Borobudur, the ninth-century Buddhist monument in Central Java, Indonesia. ... The Great Stupa at Sanchi. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Maya (illusion). ... (8th century - 9th century - 10th century - other centuries) Events Beowulf might have been written down in this century, though it could also have been in the 8th century Viking attacks on Europe begin Oseberg ship burial The Magyars arrive in what is now Hungary, forcing the Serbs and Bulgars south... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... Relief image of the bodhisattva Kuan Yin from Mt. ... Central Java (Indonesian: Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia. ... In the art of sculpture, a relief is an artwork where a modelled form projects out of a flat background. ... Footprint of the Buddha. ... The Great Stupa at Sanchi. ...

The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology, namely, Kamadhatu (the world of desire); Rupadhatu (the world of forms); and Arupadhatu (the world of formless). During the journey, the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades. Eastern Orthodox shrine Buddhist shrine just outside Wat Phnom. ... A stone image of the Buddha. ... This article is about the religious or spiritual journey. ... Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the universe according to the canonical Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. ... Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the universe according to the canonical Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. ... In Buddhism, rÅ«pajhānas (Sanskrit: rÅ«padhyāna form meditation) are successive levels of meditation in which the mind is focused on a material object: it is a word used in Pāli scriptures. ... In Buddhism, the arūpajhānas are four successive levels of meditation on non-material objects. ... Stairs, staircase, stairway, flight of stairs are all names for a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. ...

Evidence suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the Javanese conversion to Islam.^[2] It was rediscovered in 1814 by Sir Thomas Raffles, the British ruler of Java. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[3] Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage, and once a year Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument. It is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.^[4][5][6] (13th century - 14th century - 15th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 14th century was that century which lasted from 1301 to 1400. ... Hinduism in Indonesia - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Year 1814 (MDCCCXIV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar). ... Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles (6 July 1781 - 5 July 1826) was the founder of the city (now country) of Singapore, and is one of the best-known of the many Britons who created the largest empire the world has ever seen. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ... A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a specific site (such as a forest, mountain, lake, desert, monument, building, complex, or city) that has been nominated and confirmed for inclusion on the list maintained by the international World Heritage Programme administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 State... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Jimbaran Beach, Bali. ...

Etymology

In Indonesian, temples are known as candi, thus "Borobudur Temple" is locally known as Candi Borobudur. The term is also used more loosely to describe any ancient structure, for example, gates and bathing structures. The origins of the name Borobudur however are unclear,^[7] although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known.^[7] The name 'Borobudur' was first written in the Sir Thomas Raffles book on Java history.^[8] Raffles wrote about a monument called borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name.^[7] The only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the monument is Nagarakertagama, written by Mpu Prapanca in AD 1365, which mentions Budur as a Buddhist sanctuary. It is likely that it is associated with Borobudur, but the manuscript lacks any further information to make a definite identification. Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles (6 July 1781 - 5 July 1826) was the founder of the city (now country) of Singapore, and is one of the best-known of the many Britons who created the largest empire the world has ever seen. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Nagarakretagama (Nāgarakṛtâgama), Kakawin Nagarakretagama (Epic poem Nagarakretagama), or Negarakertagama is most known old javanese epic poem, so this is the most researched Old Javanese epic poem. ... Mpu Prapanca was an author of the Old Javanese epic poem Nagarakertagama, which tells the story of Majapahit Kingdom and other stories of old Hindu-Javanese kingdoms. ...

The name 'Bore-Budur', and thus 'BoroBudur', is thought to have been written by Raffles in English grammar to mean the nearby village of Bore; most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language, the monument should have been named 'BudurBoro'. Raffles also suggested that 'Budur' might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ('ancient') - i.e., 'ancient Boro'.^[7] However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name ('Budur') comes from Javanese term bhudhara (or mountain).^[9] The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Location

Location of Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut in one straight line.

A number of Buddhist and Hindu temple compounds are located approximately 40 km (25 miles) northwest of Yogyakarta, on an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and the Progo river. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility.^[10] During the first restoration, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one straight line position.^[11] It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobodur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobodur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed although exact ritual process is yet unknown.^[12] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 394 pixelsFull resolution (802 × 395 pixel, file size: 155 KB, MIME type: image/png) J. L. Moens (1951). ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 394 pixelsFull resolution (802 × 395 pixel, file size: 155 KB, MIME type: image/png) J. L. Moens (1951). ... The Buddhist temple Wat Chiang Man, in Chiang Mai, Thailand, which dates from the late 13th century Buddhist temples and monasteries, sorted by location. ... A Hindu temple (Sanskrit: mandira), is a house of worship for followers of Hinduism. ... Yogyakarta (also Jogjakarta in pre-1972 spelling or Jogja) is a city and province on the island of Java, Indonesia. ... Mount Sundoro or Gunung Sundoro is an active stratovolcano in Central Java, Indonesia. ... Mount Sumbing or Gunung Sumbing is an active stratovolcano in Central Java, Indonesia, symmetrical with Sundoro. ... Mount Merbabu (Indonesian: Gunung Merbabu) is a dormant strato-volcano in Central Java province on the Indonesian island of Java. ... This article is about Mount Merapi in Central Java. ... Kedu Plain Is the high ground that lies between the volcanoes Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east on Central Java, Indonesia. ... List of Sacred Places in Java Note that Java has at least four cultural regions determined in part by the linguistic Jakarta Sundanese (or West Java) Javanese (or Central Java and East Java ) Categories: Dynamic lists ... Fertile soil is soil that can support abundant plant life, in particular the term is used to describe agricultural and garden soil. ... Location of the Buddhist temples triad: Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut in one straight line. ... Location of the Buddhist temples triad: Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut in one straight line. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Unlike other temples, which are built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake.^[13] The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake.^[9] Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in southeast and east Asia regions) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus leaf.^[13] Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land. The term above mean sea level (AMSL) refers to the elevation (on the ground) or altitude (in the air) of any object, relative to the average sea level. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s The 20th century lasted from 1901 to 2000 in the Gregorian calendar (often from (1900 to 1999 in common usage). ... Buddhist religious architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent in the third century BCE. Two types of structures are associated with early Buddhism: stupas and viharas. ... The term lotus has a variety of uses. ... The Lotus Sutra or Sutra on the White Lotus of the Sublime Dharma (Sanskrit: Saddharma PuṇḍarÄ«ka SÅ«tra; 妙法蓮華經 Chinese: MiàofÇŽ Liánhuā JÄ«ng; Japanese: Myōhō Renge Kyō; Korean: Myobeomnyeonhwagyeong) is one of the most popular and influential Mahāyāna sutras in East Asia and... Relief image of the bodhisattva Kuan Yin from Mt. ... Location of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia. ... East Asia Geographic East Asia. ...

Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site.^[14] A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur,^[13] which corroborates the doubts had raised by archaeologists. The lake area, however, fluctuated with time; a study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene.^[15] For other uses, see Clay (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), prairie hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), oriental lily (Lilium auratum), evening primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... (13th century - 14th century - 15th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 14th century was that century which lasted from 1301 to 1400. ... For other uses, see Volcano (disambiguation). ... The Pleistocene epoch (IPA: ) on the geologic timescale is the period from 1,808,000 to 11,550 years BP. The Pleistocene epoch had been intended to cover the worlds recent period of repeated glaciations. ...

History

Construction

Buddhist pilgrims meditate on the top platform.

There is no written record of who built Borobudur, or of its intended purpose.^[16] The construction time is estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the eight and ninth centuries. It is likely Borobudur was founded around AD 800.^[16] This corresponds to the period between AD 760–830, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java,^[17], when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction is estimated to have taken 75 years and was completed in 825, during the reign of Samaratungga.^[18][19] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1280x960, 233 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Religion in Indonesia Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1280x960, 233 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Religion in Indonesia Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used... Petroglyphs on a Bishop Tuff tableland Petroglyph on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument Petroglyphs from Scandinavia (Häljesta, Västmanland in Sweden). ... Inscriptions are words or letters written, engraved, painted, or otherwise traced on a surface and can appear in contexts both small and monumental. ... Events December 25, Rome, coronation of Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as emperor by Pope Leo III. Celtic monks begin work on the Book of Kells on the Island of Iona. ... Sailendra ( meaning Lord of the Mountain in Sanskrit ) was the name of an Indonesian dynasty, emerging in Central Java at the end of the 8 th century. ... Map of Southeast Asia at end of 12th century. ... Samaratungga was the last ruler of the Sailendra dynasty. ...

There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras are known as ardent followers of Lord Buddha, although stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they were Hindus.^[18] It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountain around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In AD 732, king Sanjaya, the founder of the Sailendra dynasty, commissioned a Hindu Shiva lingga sanctuary to be built on the Ukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 miles) east of Borobudur. Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, was associated with a Buddhist Kalasan temple, as shown in the Kalasan Charter dated AD 778. Hinduism (known as in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... A silhouette of a Buddha statue at Ayutthaya, Thailand. ... This article is about the Java island. ... For other uses, see Siva (disambiguation). ... Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple compound in Indonesia, located in central Java, approximately 18 km east of Yogyakarta ( ). It was built around 850 CE by either Rakai Pikatan, king of the second Mataram dynasty or Balitung Maha Sambu, during the Sanjaya dynasty. ... For the Javanese dynasty of the same name, see Sanjaya Dynasty. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Some archaeologists believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java, thus it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise.^[20] However, it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the AD 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau.^[21] This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan complex, which was believed that it was erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya reply to Borobudur,^[21] but others suggest that there was peace coexistence climate where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.^[22] Saivite: of Saivism; belonging to Saivism, the Hindu denomination that worships God Siva as the Supreme God. ... The gate of Ratu Boko compound. ... Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple compound in Indonesia, located in central Java, approximately 18 km east of Yogyakarta ( ). It was built around 850 CE by either Rakai Pikatan, king of the second Mataram dynasty or Balitung Maha Sambu, during the Sanjaya dynasty. ...

Abandonment

Borobudur stupas overlooking a shadowy mountain of Java. For centuries, it has been deserted.

For centuries, Borobudur lay hidden under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind the desertion of the monument remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. One assumption is that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the fifteenth century.^[23] Another theory is that a famine caused by a volcanic eruption (est. circa AD 1006) forced local inhabitants to leave their lands and the monument.^[13] The event was said to trigger the movement of Javanese power from the Kedu Plain area to the east of Java nearby the Brantas valley as early as AD 928. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1280 × 960 pixel, file size: 220 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur Sailendra Metadata... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1280 × 960 pixel, file size: 220 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur Sailendra Metadata... Ash plume from Mt Cleveland, a stratovolcano Diamond Head, a well-known backdrop to Waikiki in Hawaii, is an ash cone that solidified into tuff Volcanic ash consists of very fine rock and mineral particles less than 2 mm in diameter that are ejected from a volcanic vent. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... <nowiki>Insert non-formatted text hereBold text</nowiki>A famine is a social and economic crisis that is commonly accompanied by widespread malnutrition, starvation, epidemic and increased mortality. ... Brantas is the longest river in East Java. ...

However, the great monument was never completely removed from the local people's memory. Instead of glorifying stories of the monument^[clarify], memories gradually shifted into more superstitious beliefs that were associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese manuscripts from the eighteenth century mention a case of bad luck associated with the monument; according to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for a rebel who revolted against the king of Mataram in AD 1709.^[2] The hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in AD 1757.^[24] In spite of a restriction to visit the monument, he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas). As soon as he arrived at his palace, he died unexpectedly after a one-day illness. Superstition is a set of behaviors that may be faith based, or related to magical thinking, whereby the practitioner believes that the future, or the outcome of certain events, can be influenced by certain of his or her behaviors. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Mataram was the last major independent Javanese empire on Java before the island was colonized by the Dutch. ... Yogyakarta Sultanate or Kesultanan Yogyakarta is a monarchy in the province of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. ...

Rediscovery

Borobudur's main stupa, which is empty and has created mystery during the discovery period.

Following the Anglo-Dutch Java War, Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed governor was Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles, who had a great interest in the history of Java. He collected Javan antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument called Chandi Borobudur deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro.^[24] He was not able to make the discovery himself and he sent H.C. Cornellius, a Dutch engineer, to investigate. Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... The Anglo-Dutch Java War in 1810-1811 was a war between Great Britain and Netherlands fought entirely on the Island of Java in colonial Indonesia. ... Governor-General (or Governor General) is a term used both historically and currently to designate the appointed representative of a head of state or their government for a particular territory, historically in a colonial context, but no longer necessarily in that form. ... Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles (6 July 1781 - 5 July 1826) was the founder of the city (now country) of Singapore, and is one of the best-known of the many Britons who created the largest empire the world has ever seen. ... Semarang is a city on the north coast of the island of Java, Indonesia. ...

In two months, Cornellius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles including various drawings. Although the discovery is only mentioned by a few sentences, Raffles has been credited with the monument's recovery and bringing it to the world's attention.^[8]

Hartmann, a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region, continued Cornellius' work and in 1835 the whole monument was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more personal rather than official. Hartmann did not, however, write any reports of his activities; in particular, the alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa.^[25] The main stupa is empty. In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main dome although what he discovered remains unknown. The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned a Dutch engineering official, F.C. Wilsen, who in 1853, reported a large Buddha statue the size of one hundred other Borobudur statues. This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The first photograph by Isidore van Kinsbergen (1873) after the monument was cleared up.

Besides making hundreds of relief sketches, Wilsen studied the monument itself, preparing three articles on it. The Dutch East Indies government, meanwhile, had appointed J.F.G. Brumund to make a detail study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. Brumund intended to publish an article supplemented by Wilsen's drawings. The colonial government, however, decided otherwise and Brumund subsequently refused to cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar, C. Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later.^[25] The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1873 by a Dutch-Flemish engraver, Isidore van Kinsbergen.^[26] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 785 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1000 × 764 pixel, file size: 107 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur Portal:Indonesia... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 785 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1000 × 764 pixel, file size: 107 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur Portal:Indonesia... Borobudur by van Kinsbergen c. ... A monograph is a scholarly book or a treatise on a single subject or a group of related subjects. ... The term Flemings (Dutch: ) denotes the majority population in Flanders (the northern half of Belgium). ... Borobudur by van Kinsbergen c. ...

Appreciation of the site developed slowly. Some reliefs and ornaments were routinely removed by thieves and souvenir hunters. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artefacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the reliefs placed in museums due to the unstable condition of the monument.^[26] The government then appointed an archeologist, Groenveldt, to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and assess the actual condition of the monument. The report found that the fears over its condition were unjustified and recommended the monument be left intact. Archaeology or sometimes in American English archeology (from the Greek words &#945;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#959;&#962; = ancient and &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962; = word/speech) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ...

Contemporary events

Tourists in Borobudur.

Following the major 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO,^[27] Borobudur is once again used as a place of worship and pilgrimage. Once a year, during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak (Indonesian: Waisak) day commemorating the birth, death, and the time when Siddhārtha Gautama attained the highest wisdom to become the Buddha Shakyamuni. Vesak is an official national holiday in Indonesia^[28] and the ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by walking from Mendut to Pawon and ending at Borobudur.^[29] Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 490 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (1800 × 2200 pixel, file size: 966 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur Metadata This... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 490 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (1800 × 2200 pixel, file size: 966 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur Metadata This... UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ... A place of worship is a building or other locations where religious persons may worship their deity, regularly or not. ... For other uses, see Full Moon. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Media:Example. ... Image:StandngBuddha. ... Location of the Buddhist temples triad: Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut in one straight line. ... Location of the Buddhist temples triad: Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut in one straight line. ...

The monument is visited daily by tourists and is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000 tourists of whom 36,000 were foreigners visited the monument.^[5] The figure hiked into 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic tourists) in the mid 1990s, before the country's economy crisis.^[6] Tourism development, however, has been criticized for not including the local community on which occasional local conflict has arisen.^[5] In 2003, residents and small businesses around Borobudur organized several meetings and poetry protests, objecting to a provincial government plan to build a three-story mall complex, dubbed the 'Java World'.^[30] Jimbaran Beach, Bali. ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... The East Asian Financial Crisis was a period of economic unrest that started in July 1997 in Thailand and South Korea with the financial collapse of Kia, and affected currencies, stock markets, and other asset prices in several Asian countries, many considered Four Asian Tigers. ...

On 21 January 1985, nine stupas were badly damaged by nine bombs.^[31] In 1991, a blind Muslim evangelist, Husein Ali Al Habsyie, was sentenced to life imprisonment for masterminding a series of bombings in the mid 1980s including the temple attack.^[32] Two other members of a right-wing extremist group that carried out the bombings were each sentenced to 20 years in 1986 and another man received a 13-year prison term. On 27 May 2006, an earthquake of 6.2 magnitude on Richter scale struck the south coast of Central Java. The event had caused severe damage around the region and casualties to the nearby city of Yogyakarta, but Borobudur was intact.^[33] is the 21st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... Life imprisonment is a sentence of imprisonment for a serious crime, nominally for the entire remaining life of the prisoner, but in fact for a period which varies between jurisdictions: many countries have a maximum possible period of time (usually 50 years) a prisoner may be incarcerated, or require the... Extremism is a term used to describe the actions or ideologies of individuals or groups outside the perceived political center of a society; or otherwise claimed to violate common standards of ethics and reciprocity. ... is the 147th day of the year (148th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The May 2006 Java earthquake occurred at 05:54 local time on 27 May 2006 (22:54 GMT 26 May), in the Indian Ocean around 25 km (15 miles) south-southwest of the Indonesian city of Yogyakarta, near Galur, on the southern side of the island of Java (), 17. ... The Richter magnitude test scale (or more correctly local magnitude ML scale) assigns a single number to quantify the size of an earthquake. ... The Special Region of Yogyakarta (Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY), is a province of Indonesia on the island of Java. ...

Architecture

Borobudur ground plan

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind.^[34] The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387.1 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 600 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (800 × 800 pixel, file size: 157 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 600 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (800 × 800 pixel, file size: 157 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur ... The Great Stupa at Sanchi. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... For the film, see Mandala (film). ... For other uses, see Square. ... Circle illustration This article is about the shape and mathematical concept of circle. ... Media:Example. ...

Approximately 55,000 m³ (1,942,307 cubic feet) of stones were taken from neighbouring rivers to build the monument.^[35] The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid innundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles (makaras). Mortar holding weathered bricks. ... This article is about the Dovetail joint woodworking technique. ... In the art of sculpture, a relief is an artwork where a modelled form projects out of a flat background. ... In situ is a Latin phrase meaning in the place. ... Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area. ... This article is about the meteorological term. ... Gargoyles redirects here. ...

A carved spout (makara) for water drainage.

Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple (or candi in Indonesian).^[35] A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Lord Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of deity and have inner spaces for worship. The complexity, however, of the monument's meticulous design suggests it is in fact a temple. Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred knowledge according to the Buddhism cosmology.^[36] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... For other meanings, see pyramid (disambiguation). ... Eastern Orthodox shrine Buddhist shrine just outside Wat Phnom. ... Look up deity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The four stages of enlightenment in Buddhism are the four degrees of approach to full enlightenment as an Arahant which a person can attain in this life. ... Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the universe according to the canonical Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. ...

Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.

Little is known about the architect Gunadharma.^[37] His name is actually recounted from Javanese legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. He was said to be one who "... bears the measuring rod, knows division and thinks himself composed of parts."^[37] The basic unit measurement he used during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.^[38] The unit metrics is then obviously relative between persons, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur.^[38] The identical ratio formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala dimension has calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.^[37] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 471 pixel Image in higher resolution (1300 × 765 pixel, file size: 103 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 471 pixel Image in higher resolution (1300 × 765 pixel, file size: 103 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur ... Gunadharma or Gunadarma is the architect of Borobudur, the ninth-century Buddhist monument in Central Java, Indonesia. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ...

A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.

The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top, which resembles the three major division of a human body.^[37] The base is a 123x123 m² square in size and 4 meters (13.1 ft) high of walls.^[35] The body is composed of five square platforms each with diminishing heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center; the top of which is the highest point of the monument (35 meters (114.8 ft) above ground level). Access to the upper part is through stairways at the centre of each side with a number of gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues. The main entrance is at the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways linking the monument to the low-lying plain. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (960 × 1280 pixel, file size: 518 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur Portal:Architecture... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (960 × 1280 pixel, file size: 518 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Borobudur Portal:Architecture... The Great Stupa at Sanchi. ... Concentric objects share the same center, axis or origin with one inside the other. ...

The three monument's division symbolizes three stages of mental preparation towards the ultimate goal according to the Buddhism cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world).^[39] Kamadhatu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between three stages have methaporical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plainless circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms - where men are still attached with forms and names - changes into the world of the formless.^[40] Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the universe according to the canonical Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. ... In Buddhism, rūpajhānas (Sanskrit: rūpadhyāna form meditation) are successive levels of meditation in which the mind is focused on a material object: it is a word used in Pāli scriptures. ... In Buddhism, the ar&#363;pajh&#257;nas are four successive levels of meditation on non-material objects. ...

In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered.^[41] The "hidden foot" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narrative describing the real Kamadhatu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently describe instruction for the sculptors, illustrating the scene to be carved.^[42] An encasement base hides the real base of which its functions remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument through the hill.^[42] There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden foot was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.^[41] The encasement base, however, was built with detailed and meticulous design with aesthetics and religious compensation. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article is about building architecture. ... Urban, city, or town planning, deals with design of the built environment from the municipal and metropolitan perspective. ... Aesthetics (or esthetics) (from the Greek word &#945;&#953;&#963;&#952;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;) is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty. ...

Reliefs

Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kamadhatu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).^[43] Bas-relief (pronounced bah-relief, French for low relief) is a method of sculpting which entails carving or etching away the surface of a flat piece of stone or metal creating a sculpture portrayed as a picture. ... West facade of the Notre-Dame de Strasbourg Cathedral A facade (or façade) (IPA: /fa sad/) is generally the exterior of a building — especially the front, but also sometimes the sides and rear. ... Stairs, staircase, stairway, flight of stairs are all names for a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. ...

The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,^[44] are grouped into 11 series encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (9,842.5 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.^[45] Sudhana (translated as Good Wealth) is the main protagonist in the next-to-last and longest chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra. ... Relief of devotees circumambulation a stupa Circumambulation (also known as pradakshina) is the act of moving around a sacred object. ... Monument to pilgrims in Burgos, Spain This article is on religious pilgrims. ... Ajax prepares to violate the sanctuary of Athena by abducting Cassandra by force: red-figure vase, c. ...

The hidden foot depicts the story of the karma law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also ballustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of Buddha's former lives.^[43] The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search; terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom. Karma (Sanskrit: कर्मन karman, Pāli: कमा Kamma) means action or doing; whatever one does, says, or thinks is a karma. ... Image:StandngBuddha. ... Perfection of Wisdom is a translation of the Sanskrit term prajñā pāramitā (Devanagari: प्रज्ञा पारमिता, Chinese: 般若波羅蜜多/般若波罗蜜多, Pinyin: bānruò-bōluómìduō, Japanese: hannya-haramita), which is one of the aspects of a bodhisattvas personality called the paramitas. ...

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and effect.^[43] There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death). It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... Allegorical personification of Charity as a mother with three infants by Anthony van Dyck // The word charity entered the English language through the O.Fr word charite which was derived from the Latin caritas.[1] In Christian theology charity, or love (agapē), is the greatest of the three theological virtues... Saṃsāra, the Sanskrit and Pāli term for continous movement or continuous flowing refers in Buddhism to the concept of a cycle of birth (jāti) and consequent decay and death (jarāmaraṇa), in which all beings in the universe participate and which can only be escaped...

The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

One relief on a corridor wall.

See also: The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.