The Celtic Explorer, a research vessel engaged in bottom trawling

Bottom trawling (known in the scientific community as Benthic trawling) is a fishing method which involves towing trawl nets along the sea floor, as opposed to pelagic trawling, where a net is towed higher in the water column. Bottom trawling can be carried out from one vessel or two vessels fishing cooperatively. It is practiced from a very wide range of fishing vessels, starting with small motor boats powered by engines of several tens of horsepower and up to large ocean-going trawlers, up to 100 m long, and powered by engines of several thousand horsepower. At least 275 vessels from 11 countries practice bottom trawling[1]. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 1418 KB)RV Celtic Explorer, taken November 2004 in Galway Bay, Ireland. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 1418 KB)RV Celtic Explorer, taken November 2004 in Galway Bay, Ireland. ... A research vessel is a ship primarily constructed to carry out scientific research at sea. ... Fishing is the activity of hunting for fish by hooking, trapping, or gathering animals not classifiable as insects which breathe in water or pass their lives in water. ... Pelagic trawling is the use of a cone-shaped net behind a boat to catch large schools of small fishes such as anchovies and shrimp. ... The horsepower (hp) is the name of several non-metric units of power. ...

Fishing Gear

The design requirements of a bottom trawl are relatively simple, a mechanism for keeping the mouth of the net open in horizontal and vertical dimensions, a "body" of net which guides fish inwards, and a "cod-end" of a suitable mesh size, where the fish are collected. The size and design of net used is determined by the species being targeted, the engine power and design of the fishing vessel and locally enforced regulations.

Beam Trawling

Design of an early beam trawl

The simplest method of bottom trawling, the mouth of the net is held open by a solid metal beam, attached to two "shoes", which are solid metal plates, welded to the ends of the beam, which slide over and disturb the seabed. This method is mainly used on smaller vessels, fishing for flatfish or prawns, relatively close inshore. Image File history File links Beam trawl design. ... Image File history File links Beam trawl design. ... Families Suborder Psettodoidei     Psettodidae Suborder Pleuronectoidei     Citharidae     Scophthalmidae (turbots)     Bothidae (lefteye flounders)     Pleuronectidae (righteye flounders)     Paralichthyidae (large-tooth flounders)     Achiropsettidae (southern flounders)     Samaridae Suborder Soleoidei     Soleidae (soles)     Achiridae (American soles)     Cynoglossidae (tonguefishes) The flatfish are an order (Pleuronectiformes) of ray-finned fish, also called the Heterosomata, sometimes classified as a... Superfamilies Penaeoidea Aristeidae Benthesicymidae Penaeidae Sicyoniidae Solenoceridae Sergestoidea Luciferidae Sergestidae Prawns are edible, shrimp-like crustaceans, belonging to the sub-order Dendrobranchiata [1]. They are distinguished from the superficially similar shrimp by the gill structure which is branching in prawns (hence the name, dendro=tree; branchia=gill), but is lamellar...

Otter trawling

A trawl door stowed before being attached to the net

Otter trawling derives its name from the "trawl doors" or "otters" which are used to keep the mouth of the net open. As these are towed along the seabed, hydrodynamic pressure pushes them outwards, preventing the mouth of the net closing. They also act like a plough, digging up to 15cm into the seabed, creating a turbid cloud, and scaring fish towards the trawlnet mouth. The net is held open vertically on an otter trawl by floats and/or kites attached to the "headline" (the rope which runs along the upper mouth of the net), and weighted "bobbins" attached to the "foot rope" (the rope which runs along the lower mouth of the net). These bobbins vary in their design depending on the roughness of the sea bed which is being fished, varying from small rubber discs for very smooth, sandy ground, to large metal balls, up to 0.5 m in diameter for very rough ground. These bobbins can also be designed to lift the net off the seabed when they hit an obstacle. These are known as "rock-hopper" gears. Image File history File links Trawl doors. ... Image File history File links Trawl doors. ... The plough (American spelling: plow) is a tool used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting. ... Turbidity standards of 10, 100, and 1000 NTU Turbidity is a cloudiness or haziness of water (or other liquid) caused by individual particles that are too small to be seen without magnification, thus being much like smoke in air. ... There are several meanings of float: an air-filled vessel that floats on water, such as some types of lifeboats buoyancy float (project management) floating currency floating exchange rate floating point, a datatype in computer science free float of company stock insurance (investable policyholder funds) root beer float: ice cream... Roughness or rugosity is a measurement (see surface metrology) of the small-scale variations in the height of a physical surface. ...

Bobbins (lower left) and floats (lower right - upper right) on a trawl net

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (587x608, 378 KB)Bobbins and floats on a fishing net. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (587x608, 378 KB)Bobbins and floats on a fishing net. ...

Body of the trawlnet

The body of the trawlnet is funnel-like, wide at its "mouth" and narrowing towards the codend, and usually is fitted with wings of netting at the both sides of the mouth. It is long enough to assure adequate flow of water and prevent fish from escaping the net, after having been caught. It is made of diamond-meshed netting, the size of the meshes decreasing from the front of the net towards the codend. Into the body, fish and turtle escape devices can be fitted. These can be simple structures like "square mesh panels", which are easier for smaller fish to pass through, or more complicated devices, such as bycatch grills. In fisheries science, by-catch refers to species caught in a fishery intended to target another species, as well as reproductively_immature juveniles of the target species. ...

Cod end

The business end of the net, the cod end is where fish are finally "caught". The size of mesh in the cod end is a determinant of the size of fish which the net catches. Consequently, regulation of mesh size is a common way of managing mortality of juvenile fishes in trawl nets. Juvenile (left) and adult (right) leaves of Stone Pine A juvenile is an individual organism that has not yet reached its adult form, sexual maturity or size. ...

Process of benthic trawling

The idea that fish are passively "scooped up" is commonly held, and has been since trawling was first developed, but has been revealed to be erroneous. Since the development of scuba diving equipment and cheap video cameras it has been possible to directly observe the processes that occur when a trawl is towed along the seabed. Scuba divers exploring fish and coral. ... A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially developed by the television industry but now common in other applications as well. ...

Structure of a benthic otter trawl

The trawl doors disturb the sea bed, create a cloud of muddy water which hides the oncoming trawl net and generates a noise which attracts fish. The fish begin to swim in front of the net mouth, but do not seem to be distressed by it. As the trawl continues along the seabed, fish begin to tire and slip backwards into the net. Finally, the fish become exhausted and drop back, into the "cod end" and are caught. The speed that the trawl is towed at depends on the swimming speed of the species which is being targeted, but for most demersal species, a speed of around 4 knots (7 km/h) is appropriate. Image File history File links Structure of a bottom trawl File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Structure of a bottom trawl File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... In oceanography, marine geology and biology, benthos are the organisms and habitats of the sea floor; in freshwater biology they are the organisms and habitats of the bottoms of lakes, rivers, and creeks. ... A knot is a unit of speed, abbreviated kt or kn. ...

Ecological effect

Bottom fishing has operated for over a century on heavily fished grounds such as the North Sea and Grand Banks. Although overfishing has caused huge ecological changes to the fish community on the Grand Banks, concern has been raised recently about the damage which benthic trawling inflicts upon seabed communities. A species of particular concern is the slow growing, deep water coral Lophelia pertusa. This species is home to a diverse community of deep sea organisms, but is easily damaged by fishing gear. On November 18, 2004 the United Nations General Assembly urged nations to consider temporary bans on high seas bottom trawling. The North Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, located between the coasts of Norway and Denmark in the east, the coast of the British Isles in the west, and the German, Dutch, Belgian and French coasts in the south. ... Map showing the Grand Banks Historic map of the Grand Banks. ... Subclasses Alcyonaria Zoantharia See text for orders. ... Binomial name Lopehelia pertusa L., 1758 Synonyms Lophelia pertusa (L., 1758) is a species of cold-water coral which grows in the deep waters throughout the North Atlantic ocean. ... November 18 is the 322nd day of the year (323rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The United Nations General Assembly (GA) is one of the five principal organs of the United Nations. ...

The turbidity produced by bottom trawling can have an impact significant distances from the site of the trawl activity. The absolute magnitude of suspended solids introduced into the water column from bottom trawling activity is much greater than any other man-made source of suspended solid pollution in the world's oceans. [2]

The UN Secretary General reported that 95 percent of damage to seamount ecosystems worldwide is caused by bottom trawling. [3] The United Nations Secretary-General is the head of the Secretariat, one of the principal divisions of the United Nations. ... A seamount is a mountain rising from the seafloor that does not reach to the surface of the ocean. ...

Also see: Fishery Marine conservation A lobster boat unloading its catch in Ilfracombe harbour, North Devon, England. ... Marine conservation, also known as marine resources conservation, is the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas. ...

Current bottom trawling restrictions

Today, most major, responsible fishing countries restrict bottom trawling within their jurisdictions: [4]

• The United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration banned bottom trawling off most of its Pacific coast in early 2006 and has restricted the practice severely off its other coasts as well. [5] The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a scientific agency of the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. ...

• The Council of the European Union in 2004 applied “a precautionary approach” and closed the sensitive Darwin Mounds off Scotland to bottom trawling. The Council of the European Union (French: Le Conseil de lUnion européenne, German: Rat der Europäischen Union) is a governing body that forms, along with the European Parliament, the legislative arm of the European Union (EU). ...

• In 2005, the FAO’s General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below 1000 metres and, in January 2006, completely closed ecologically sensitive areas off Italy, Cyprus, and Egypt to all bottom trawling. Possible meanings: Faro Airport (Portugal) Federation of Astrobiology Organizations Financial Aid Office Food and Agriculture Organization This page expands a three-character combination which might be any or all of: an abbreviation, an acronym, an initialism, a word in English, or a word in another language. ...

• Norway first recognized in 1999 that trawling had caused significant damage to its cold-water lophelia corals. Norway has since established a program to determine the location of cold-water corals within its EEZ so as to quickly close those areas to bottom trawling.

• Canada has acted to protect vulnerable coral reef ecosystems from bottom trawling off Nova Scotia. The Northeast Channel was protected by a fisheries closure in 2002, and the Gully area was protected by its designation as a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in 2004.

• Australia in 1999 established the Tasmanian Seamounts Marine Reserve to prohibit bottom trawling in the south Tasman Sea. Australia also prohibits bottom trawling in The Great Australian Bight Marine Park near Ceduna off South Australia. In 2004, Australia established the world’s largest marine protected area in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park where fishing and other extractive activities are prohibited.

• New Zealand in 2001 closed 19 seamounts within its EEZ to bottom trawling, including in the Chatham Rise, sub-Antarctic waters, and off the east and west coasts of the North Island. New Zealand Fisheries Minister Jim Anderton announced on 14 February 2006 that a draft agreement had been reached with fishing companies to ban bottom trawling in 30 percent of New Zealand's exclusive economic zone, an area of about 1.2 million km² reaching from sub-Antarctic waters to sub-tropical ones. [6] But only a small fraction of the area proposed for protection will cover areas actually vulnerable to bottom trawling. [7] In international maritime law, an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a seazone extending from a states coast over which the state has special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources. ... James Patrick Anderton, almost always referred to as Jim Anderton, is leader of the Progressive Party, a political party in the New Zealand Parliament. ... February 14 is the 45th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Sea areas in international rights Under the law of the sea, an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a seazone over which a state has special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources. ...

• Palau has banned all bottom trawling within its jurisdiction and by any Palauan or Palauan corporation anywhere in the world. [8]

• The President of Kiribati, Anote Tong, announced in early 2006 the formation of the world’s first deep sea marine reserve area. This measure—the Phoenix Islands Protected Area—creates the world’s third largest marine protected area and will protect deep sea corals, fish, and seamounts from bottom trawling. [9]

The relative lack of bottom trawling regulation in international waters

Beyond national jurisdictions, most bottom trawling is unregulated either because there is no Regional Fisheries Management Organization (RFMO) with competence to regulate, or else what RFMOs that do exist have not actually regulated. The major exception to this is in the Antarctic region, where the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources regime has instituted extensive bottom trawling restrictions. [10] The the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) also recently closed four seamounts and part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge from all fishing, including bottom trawling, for three years. But this still leaves most of international waters completely without bottom trawl regulation. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources is part of the Antarctic Treaty System. ...

United Nations Proposals for Bottom Trawling Ban

Palau President Tommy Remengesau has called for a ban on destructive and unregulated bottom trawling beyond national jurisdictions and Palau has led the effort at the United Nations and in the Pacific to achieve a consensus by countries to take this action at an international level. [11] [12] Palau has been joined by the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Tuvalu in supporting an interim bottom trawling ban at the United Nations. [13] Thomas Esang Remengesau, Jr. ... The foundation of the U.N. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ... For other meanings of Pacific, see Pacific (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

New Zealand Fisheries Minister Jim Anderton has promised to support a global ban on bottom trawling if there was sufficient support to make that a practical option. [14] James Patrick Anderton, almost always referred to as Jim Anderton, is leader of the Progressive Party, a political party in the New Zealand Parliament. ...

External links

• Bottom trawling facts from Oceana
• BottomTrawling.com
• Bottom trawling facts from Greenpeace
• Deep Sea Conservation Coalition Save the high seas
• Marine Conservation Biology Institute (MCBI) Publications
• UNEP: System-Wide EarthWatch Oceans and Coastal Areas
• UN moratorium information from TerraNature
• Bottoms Down