Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. The ensuing period is called the Restauration, following French usage, and is characterized by a sharp conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the template to the right. ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin Gallia, Greek Galatia) is the region of Western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Gaul in the Roman Empire Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in what would become modern day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and western Germany. ... For other uses, see Franks (disambiguation). ... France in the Middle Ages is, for the purpose of this article, the history of the region roughly corresponding to modern day France from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th century. ... Early Modern France is the portion of French history that falls in the early modern period from the mid 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance to the eve of the French Revolution). ... The History of France from 1789 to 1914 (the long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes the periods of the First French Empire, the Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X (1814-1830), the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe dOrléans (1830... The History of France from 1914 to today spans the political regimes of the Third French Republic, the Vichy Regime, the French Fourth Republic and the French Fifth Republic, and includes World War I and World War II. For specific information on todays France, see France or Portal:France. ... For other uses of the term Merovingian, see Merovingian (disambiguation). ... The Carolingians (also known as the Carlovingians) were a dynasty of rulers that eventually controlled the Frankish realm and its successors from the 8th to the 10th century, officially taking over the kingdoms from the Merovingian dynasty in 751. ... The direct Capetian Dynasty followed the Carolingian rulers of France from 987 to 1328. ... The Valois Dynasty succeeded the Capetian Dynasty as rulers of France from 1328-1589. ... This article or section should include material from France: Wars of Religion - Bourbon Dynasty The House of Bourbon dates from at least the beginning of the 13th century, when the estate of Bourbon was ruled by a Lord, vassal of France. ... The French people proclaimed Frances First Republic on 21 September 1792 as a result of the French Revolution and of the abolition of the French monarchy. ... 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Louis XVIII, 1814-1824

Louis XVIII's restoration to the throne in 1814 was effected largely through the support of Napoleon's former foreign minister Talleyrand who convinced the victorious Allied Powers of the desirability of a Bourbon restoration. Louis was forced to grant a written constitution, the Charter of 1814, which guaranteed a bicameral legislature, with a hereditary/appointive Chamber of Peers and an elected Chamber of Deputies. The franchise was limited to men with considerable property holdings. Louis XVIII (November 17, 1755 - September 16, 1824) was King of France from 1814 (although he declared that he considered his reign to have begun in 1795) until his death in 1824. ... 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Charles Maurice de Talleyrand Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (February 2, 1754 - May 17, 1838) was a French diplomat. ...

After a first sentimental flush of popularity, Louis's gestures towards reversing the results of the French Revolution quickly lost him public support among the disenfranchised majority. Within a year, he fled Paris to Ghent on the news of the return of Napoleon from Elba, but returned after Waterloo had ended Napoleon's rule of the Hundred Days. This Second Restoration saw the atrocities of the White Terror, largely in the south, when supporters of the monarchy murdered many who had supported Napoleon's return. Although the King and his ministers opposed the violence, they were ineffectual in taking active steps to stop it. Combatants France Anglo-Allied/Prussian/ Dutch Commanders Napoléon Bonaparte Duke of Wellington Gebhard von Blücher Strength 73,000 67,000 Anglo-Dutch 60,000 Prussian (48,000 engaged by about 18:00) Casualties 25,000 22,000 {{{notes}}} Map of the Waterloo campaign The Battle of Waterloo, fought... Historical origin and common usage The original White Terror took place in 1794 in the aftermath of the Reign of Terror. ...

Louis' chief ministers were at first moderate, including Talleyrand, the Duc de Richelieu, and Élie Decazes, and Louis himself followed a cautious policy. The parliament elected in 1815, dominated by ultraroyalists, or Ultras, was dissolved by Richelieu as being impossible to work with, and electoral gerrymandering resulted in a more liberal chamber in 1816. However, the liberals ultimately proved just as unmanageable, and by 1820 Decazes and the King were looking for ways to revise the electoral laws again, to insure a more tractable conservative majority. However, the assassination of the Duc de Berry, the ultrareactionary son of Louis's ultrareactionary brother (and heir-presumptive) the future Charles X, in February 1820, caused Decazes's fall from power and the triumph of the Ultras. After an interval in which Richelieu returned to power from 1820 to 1821, a new Ultra ministry was formed, headed by the Comte de Villèle, a leading Ultra. Soon, however, Villèle proved himself to be nearly as cautious as his master, and, so long as Louis lived, overtly reactionary policies were kept to a minimum. Armand_Emmanuel du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu, French statesman Armand Emmanuel Sophie Septemanie du Plessis, duc de Richelieu (September 25, 1766 - May 17, 1822) was a French statesman. ... Élie, duc Decazes, French statesman Elie, Comte (later Duc) Decazes (1788 - October 24, 1860), was a French statesman. ... The Battle of New Orleans 1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The term Ultra-Royalists or simply Ultras refers to a reactionary faction which sat in the French parliament from 1815 to 1830. ... Printed in 1812, this political cartoon illustrates the electoral districts drawn by the Massachusetts legislature to favor the incumbent Democratic-Republican party candidates of Governor Elbridge Gerry over the Federalists, from which the term gerrymander is derived. ... 1816 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Charles Ferdinand, duc de Berry (1778 - February 13, 1820) was the younger son of Charles X of France and Marie-Thérèse de Savoie. ... Charles X, King of France and of Navarre (October 9, 1757 – November 6, 1836) was born at the Palace of Versailles. ... 1820 was a leap year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Jean-Baptiste Guillaume Joseph Marie Anne Seraphin, comte de Villèle (April 14, 1773 - March 13, 1854), was a French statesman. ...

Louis XVIII died on September 16, 1824, and was interred at the Saint Denis. His brother, the comte d'Artois, succeeded him as Charles X. September 16 is the 259th day of the year (260th in leap years). ... 1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... West façade of Saint Denis The Basilica of Saint Denis (French: Basilique de Saint-Denis, or simply Basilique Saint-Denis) is the famous burial site of the French monarchs, comparable to Westminster Abbey in England. ... Charles X, King of France and of Navarre (October 9, 1757 – November 6, 1836) was born at the Palace of Versailles. ...

Charles X, 1824 – 1830

During his brother's reign the comte d'Artois headed the ultra-royalist opposition, which took power after the traumatic assassination of the duc du Berry, with the ministry of the comte de Villèle, who continued as chief minister after Charles became king. Emotionally, Charles never really recovered from his son's murder. The term Ultra-Royalists or simply Ultras refers to a reactionary faction which sat in the French parliament from 1815 to 1830. ... Jean-Baptiste Guillaume Joseph Marie Anne Seraphin, comte de Villèle (April 14, 1773 - March 13, 1854), was a French statesman. ...

The Villèle cabinet resigned in 1827 under pressure from the liberal press. Villèle's successor, the vicomte de Martignac, tried to steer a middle course, but in 1829 Charles appointed Prince Jules Armand de Polignac (Louise de Polastron's nephew), an ultra-reactionary, as chief minister. Polignac initiated French colonization in Algeria. His dissolution of the chamber of deputies, his July Ordinances, which set up rigid control of the press, and his restriction of suffrage resulted in the July Revolution of 1830. The major cause of his downfall, however, was that, while he managed to keep the support of the aristocracy, the Catholic Church and even much of the peasantry, he was deeply unpopular with industrial workers and the bourgeoisie. Naval Battle of Navarino by Carneray 1827 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac, French statesman Jean Baptiste Sylvere Gay, Vicomte de Martignac (June 20, 1778 - April 3, 1832), was a French statesman. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1829 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Jules, prince de Polignac, French statesman Jules Auguste Armand Marie, prince de Polignac (1780 - March 29, 1847), French statesman, played a conspicuous part in the clerical and ultra-royalist reaction after the Revolution. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, was a revolt by the middle class against Bourbon King Charles X which forced him out of office and replaced him with the Orleanist King Louis-Philippe...

Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord, and left for England. However, the liberal, bourgeois-controlled Chamber of Deputies refused to confirm the Comte de Chambord as Henri V. In a vote largely boycotted by conservative deputies, the body declared the French throne vacant, and elevated Louis-Philippe, duc d'Orleans, to power. Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne, Comte de Chambord (September 29, 1820 - August 24, 1883) was the grandson of King Charles X of France, the posthumous son of Charless younger son Charles, Duc de Berry, who had been assassinated several months before Henris birth. ... Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne, Comte de Chambord (September 29, 1820 - August 24, 1883) was the grandson of King Charles X of France, the posthumous son of Charless younger son Charles, Duc de Berry, who had been assassinated several months before Henris birth. ... Louis-Philippe of France (October 6, 1773–August 26, 1850), served as the Orleanist king of the French from 1830 to 1848. ... This article is about Orléans, France; for other meanings see Orleans (disambiguation). ...

The Fall of the Restoration, 1827-1830

There is still considerable debate among historians as to the actual cause of the downfall of Charles X. What is generally conceded, though, is that between 1827 and 1830, a series of economic downturns combined with the rise of a liberal opposition within the Chamber of Deputies ultimately felled the conservative Bourbons. Naval Battle of Navarino by Carneray 1827 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution 1830 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ...

Between 1827 and 1830, France faced an economic downturn, industrial and agricultural, that was possibly worse than the one that sparked the Revolution of 1789. A series of progressively worsening grain harvests pushed up the prices on various staple foods and cash crops. In response, the rural peasantry throughout France lobbied for the relaxation of protective tariffs on grain in order to lower prices and ease their economic situation. However, Charles X, bowing to pressure from wealthier landowners, kept the tariffs in place. He did so based upon the Bourbon response to 1816-1817, during which Louis XVIII relaxed tariffs during a series of famines, caused a downturn in prices, and incurred the ire of wealthy landowners, the traditional source of Bourbon legitimacy. Thus, peasants throughout France between 1827 and 1830 faced a period of relative economic hardship and rising prices. The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. ...

At the same time, international pressures combined with weakened purchasing power from the provinces led to decreased economic activity in urban centers. This industrial downturn contributed to rising poverty levels among Parisian artisans. By 1830, then, multiple demographics had suffered from the economic policies of Charles X.

While the French economy faltered, a series of elections brought a relatively powerful liberal bloc into the Chamber of Deputies. The 17-strong liberal bloc of 1824 grew to 180 in 1827, and 274 in 1830. This liberal majority grew increasingly dissatisfied with the policies of the centrist Martignac and the Ultra-Royalist Polignac, seeking to protect the limited protections of the Charter of 1814. They sought the expansion of the franchise, and more liberal economic policies. They also demanded the right, as the majority bloc, to appoint the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac, French statesman Jean Baptiste Sylvere Gay, Vicomte de Martignac (June 20, 1778 - April 3, 1832), was a French statesman. ... Jules, prince de Polignac, French statesman Jules Auguste Armand Marie, prince de Polignac (1780 - March 29, 1847), French statesman, played a conspicuous part in the clerical and ultra-royalist reaction after the Revolution. ...

Also, the growth of the liberal bloc within the Chamber of Deputies corresponded roughly with the rise of a liberal press within France. Generally centered around Paris, this press provided a counterpoint to the government's journalistic services, and to the newspapers of the right. It grew increasingly important in conveying political opinions and the political situation to the Parisian public, and can thus be seen as a crucial link between the rise of the liberals and the increasingly angitated and economically suffering French masses.

Thus, by 1830, the Restoration government of Charles X faced difficulties on all sides. The new liberal majority clearly had no intention of budging in the face of Polignac's aggressive policies. The rise of a liberal press within Paris that outsold the official government newspaper indicated a general shift in Parisian politics towards the left. And yet, Charles' base of power was certainly toward the right of the political spectrum, as were his own views. He simply could not yield to the growing demands from within in Chamber of Deputies. The situation would soon come to a head.

The Four Ordinances

Technically, the Charter of 1814 made France a constitutional monarchy. While the King retained extensive power over policy-making as well as the sole power of the Executive, he was nonetheless reliant upon the Parliament to accept and pass his legal decrees. The Charter also fixed the method of election of the Deputies, their rights within the Chamber of Deputies, and the rights of the majority bloc. Thus, Charles X in 1830 faced a significant problem. He could not overstep his constitutional bounds, and yet, he could not preserve his policies with a liberal majority within the Chamber of Deputies. Stark action was required. A final no-confidence vote by the liberals in March of 1830 spurred the king into action, and he set about to alter the Charter of 1814 by decree. These decrees, known as the Four Ordinances, or the Ordinances of St Cloud, included:

1. Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies
2. Restriction of the Press Laws
3. Restriction of the franchise to only the wealthiest within France
4. Immediate new elections based upon the new electorate.

Word spread quickly of the king's intent. On July 10, 1830, before the King had even made his declarations, a group of wealthy, liberal journalists and newspaper proprietors, led by Adolph Thiers, met in Paris to decide upon a strategy to counter Charles X. It was decided then, nearly three weeks before the Revolution, that in the event of Charles' expected proclamations, the journalistic establishment of Paris would publish vitriolic criticisms of the King’s policies in an attempt to mobilize the masses (this is the assertion of H.A.C. Collingham, and may require more explanation or elaboration). Thus, When Charles X made his declarations on the 25th of July, 1830, the liberal journalism machine mobilized, publishing articles and complaints decrying the despotism of the King’s actions.

The urban mobs of Paris also mobilized, driven by patriotic fervor and economic hardship, assembling barricades and attacking the infrastructure of Charles X. Within days, the situation escalated beyond the ability of the monarchy to control it. As the Crown moved to shut down liberal periodicals, the radical Parisian masses defended those publications. They also launched attacks against pro-Bourbon presses, and paralyzed the coercive apparatus of the monarchy. Seizing the opportunity, the liberals in Parliament began drafting resolutions, complaints, and censures against the King.

The king finally abdicated on July 30. Twenty minutes later, his son, Le Duc d'Angouleme, also abdicated. The Crown nominally fell upon Charles X's grandson, the would-be Henri V. Instead, the newly-empowered Chamber of Deputies declared the throne vacant, and elevated Louis-Philippe, Duc de Orleans, to power. Thus, the July Monarchy began.

Louis-Phillipe and the House of Orleans

Louis-Philippe ascended the throne on the strength of the July Revolution of 1830, and ruled, not as "King of France" but as "King of the French," an evocative difference among contemporaries. Most historians treat the resulting July Monarchy, 1830 - 1848, as a separate period in French history. Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, was a revolt by the middle class against Bourbon King Charles X which forced him out of office and replaced him with the Orleanist King Louis-Philippe... Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution 1830 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... The July Monarchy was established in France with the reign of Louis Philippe of France. ...

• Louis-Philippe I, the Citizen King 1830-1848

Following the ousting of the last king to rule France in 1848, the Second Republic was formed after the election of Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as President (1848-1852), who subsequently had himself declared Emperor Napoleon III of the Second Empire from 1852-1871. Louis-Philippe of France (October 6, 1773–August 26, 1850), served as the Orleanist king of the French from 1830 to 1848. ... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican regime of France from February 25, 1848 to December 2, 1852. ... 1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1852 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte (April 20, 1808 - January 9, 1873) was the son of King Louis Bonaparte and Queen Hortense de Beauharnais; both monarchs of the French puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... 1852 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1871 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

Sources

Collingham, H.A.C. The July Monarchy: A Political History of France, 1830-1848. (London; New York: Longman, 1988).

Pilbeam, Pamela. The Economic Crisis of 1827-32 and the 1830 Revolution in Provincial France. The Historical Journal, Vol. 32, No. 2 (June, 1989).

Rader, Daniel L. The Journalists and the July Revolution in France. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1973).

See also

• Kings of France family tree
• Mid-nineteenth century France