Brain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's brain - usually placed on the surface of the brain, or attached to the brain's cortex. A common purpose of modern brain implants and the focus of much current research is establishing a biomedical prosthesis circumventing areas in the brain, which became dysfunctional after a stroke or other head injuries. This includes sensory substitution, e.g. in vision. Other brain implants are used in animal experiments simply to record brain activity for scientific reasons. Some brain implants involve creating interfaces between neural systems and computer chips, which are part of a wider research field called brain-computer interfaces. (Brain-computer interface research also includes technology such as EEG arrays that allow interface between mind and machine but do not require direct implantation of a device.) Italic text // ahh addiing sum spiice iin hurr`` For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... Italic text // ahh addiing sum spiice iin hurr`` For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... Italic text // ahh addiing sum spiice iin hurr`` For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... Location of the cerebral cortex Slice of the cerebral cortex, ca. ... Health science is the discipline of applied science which deals with human and animal health. ... Stroke is the clinical designation for a rapidly developing loss of brain function due to an interruption in the blood supply to all or part of the brain. ... Head injury is a trauma to the head, that may or may not include injury to the brain (see also brain injury). ... Sensory substitution is the principle to transform characteristics of one sensory modality into stimuli of another sensory modality. ... This does not cite any references or sources. ... In cognitive neuroscience, a neural network (also known as a neuronal network or biological neural network to distinguish from artificial neural networks) is a population of interconnected neurons. ... Integrated circuit of Atmel Diopsis 740 System on Chip showing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the periphery Microchips with a transparent window, showing the integrated circuit inside. ... // A brain-computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain-machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal brain (or brain cell culture) and an external device. ... Girl wearing electrodes for electroencephalography Person wearing electrodes for electroencephalography Portable recording device for electroencephalography Electroencephalography is the neurophysiologic measurement of the electrical activity of the brain by recording from electrodes placed on the scalp or, in special cases, subdurally or in the cerebral cortex. ...

Research

Brain implants electrically stimulate or record from single neurons or groups of neurons (biological neural networks) in the brain. This can only be done where the functional associations of these neurons are approximately known. Because of the complexity of neural processing and the lack of access to action potential related signals using neuroimaging techniques, the application of brain implants has been seriously limited until recent advances in neurophysiology and computer processing power. Research in sensory substitution has also made steep progress in recent years. Drawing by Santiago Ramón y Cajal of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum. ... In cognitive neuroscience, a neural network (also known as a neuronal network or biological neural network to distinguish from artificial neural networks) is a population of interconnected neurons. ... A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane. ... Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function, or pharmacology of the brain. ... Sensory substitution is the principle to transform characteristics of one sensory modality into stimuli of another sensory modality. ...

Especially in vision, due to the knowledge of the working of the visual system, eye implants (often involving some brain implants or monitoring) have been applied with demonstrated success. For hearing, cochlear implants have also proved useful in restoring patients hearing functions (however it is not clear whether these can be classified as "brain implants"). The visual system is the part of the nervous system which allows organisms to see. ... Hearing is one of the traditional five senses, and refers to the ability to detect sound. ... Illustration of the internal parts of a cochlear implant. ...

Multiple projects have demonstrated success at recording from the brains of animals for long periods of time. As early as 1976, researchers at NIH led by Ed Schmidt made action potential recordings of signals from Rhesus monkey motor cortexes using immovable 'hatpin' electrodes,^[1] including recording from single neurons for over 30 days, and consistent recordings for greater than three years from the best electrodes.

The 'hatpin' electrodes were made of pure iridium and insulated with Parylene-c, materials that are currently used in the Cyberkinetics implementation of the Utah array.^[2] These same electrodes, or derivations thereof using the same biocompatible electrode materials, are currently used in visual prosthetics laboratories,^[3] laboratories studying the neural basis of learning,^[4] and motor prosthetics approaches other than the Cyberkinetics probes^[5]

Schematic of the "Utah" Electrode Array

Breakthroughs include studies of the process of functional brain re-wiring throughout the learning of a sensory discrimination ([4]), control of physical devices by rat brains ([5]), monkeys over robotic arms ([6]), remote control of mechanical devices by monkeys and humans ([7]), remote control over the movements of roaches ([8]), electronic-based neuron transistors for leeches ([9]), control of the movements of rats, etc. Currently both Cyberkinetics and the Nicolelis lab group at Duke University are conducting preliminary motor prosthetic implants in humans, studies which are limited in success to several months by the longevity of the implants. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (897x605, 385 KB) Summary From Richard A. Normanns US Patent #5,215,088 Three-dimensional electrode device Licensing The text of U.S. patents are in the public domain worldwide [1]. Patent illustrations may be copyrighted, but U.S. patent... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (897x605, 385 KB) Summary From Richard A. Normanns US Patent #5,215,088 Three-dimensional electrode device Licensing The text of U.S. patents are in the public domain worldwide [1]. Patent illustrations may be copyrighted, but U.S. patent... Roach can refer to: Cockroach, an insect. ... For other uses, see Leech (disambiguation). ...

Rehabilitation

Brain pacemakers have been in use since 1997 to ease the symptoms of such diseases as epilepsy, Parkinson's Disease, dystonia and recently depression. Brain pacemakers are used to treat people who suffer from epilepsy, Parkinsons disease, clinical depression and other diseases. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dystonia (literally, abnormal muscle tone) is a generic term used to describe a neurological movement disorder involving involuntary, sustained muscle contractions. ... Clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder, or unipolar depression when compared to bipolar disorder) is a state of intense sadness, melancholia or despair that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ...

Current brain implants are made from a variety of materials such as tungsten, silicon, platinum-iridium, or even stainless steel. Future brain implants may make use of more exotic materials such as nanoscale carbon fibers (nanotubes), and polycarbonate urethane. General Name, Symbol, Number tungsten, W, 74 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 6, 6, d Appearance grayish white, lustrous Standard atomic weight 183. ... It has been suggested that Silicons ranking be merged into this article or section. ... The 630 foot high, stainless-clad (type 304L) Gateway Arch defines St. ... Carbon fiber composite is a strong, light and very expensive material. ... Look up Nanotube in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Polycarbonates are a particular group of thermoplastic polyesters. ... Urethane (also called ethyl carbamate) 1. ...

(see also nanotechnology, cognotechnology, and neurotechnology) Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is the simplest of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. ... MRI scan displaying cross-section of the human brain Cognotechnology is an emerging field that is technology applied to the cognitive domain, and is the result of a convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnology and information technology, according to Gerald Yonas, vice president and principal scientist at Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico... Neurotechnology is the set of tools that analyze and influence the human nervous system, especially the brain. ...

Historical research on brain implants

(see also: History of brain imaging) The history of brain imaging, began in the early 1900s with a technique called pneumoencephalography. ...

In 1870, Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch demonstrated that electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brains of dogs could produce movements. Robert Bartholow showed the same to be true for humans in 1874. By the start of the 20th century Fedor Krause began to systematically map human brain areas, using patients that had undergone brain surgery. 1870 (MDCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Eduard Hitzig (1839-1907) was a German physician who is best known for his work concerning the interaction between electrical current and the brain. ... Dr. Robert Bartholow was a professor of medicine in Cincinnati. ... Year 1874 (MDCCCLXXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link with display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating the central and peripheral nervous system. ...

Prominent research was conducted in the 1950s. Robert G. Heath experimented with aggressive mental patients, aiming to influence his subjects' moods through electrical stimulation.

Yale University physiologist Jose Delgado demonstrated limited control of animal and human subjects' behaviours using electronic stimulation. He invented the stimoceiver or transdermal stimulator a device implanted in the brain to transmit electrical impulses that modify basic behaviours such as aggression or sensations of pleasure.

Delgado was later to write a popular book on mind control, called "Physical Control of the Mind", where he stated: "the feasibility of remote control of activities in several species of animals has been demonstrated [...] The ultimate objective of this research is to provide an understanding of the mechanisms involved in the directional control of animals and to provide practical systems suitable for human application."

In the 1950s, the CIA also funded research into mind control techniques, through programs such as MKULTRA. Perhaps because he received funding for some research through the US Office of Naval Research, it has been suggested (but not proven) that Delgado also received backing through the CIA. He denied this claim in a 2005 article in Scientific American. This does not cite any references or sources. ... Mind control (or thought control) has the premise that an outside source can control an individuals thinking, behavior or consciousness (either directly or more subtly). ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... ONR Logo The Office of Naval Research (ONR), headquartered in Arlington, Virginia (Ballston), is an office of the U.S. Navy that carries out scientific research to support the Navy and Marine Corps in the interest of national security. ...

Ethical considerations

Whilst deep brain stimulation is increasingly becoming routine for patients with Parkinson's disease, there may be some behavioural side effects. Reports in the literature describe the possibility of apathy, hallucinations, compulsive gambling, hypersexuality, cognitive dysfunction, and depression. However, these may be temporary and related to correct placement and calibration of the stimulator and so are potentially reversible.^[6] In neurotechnology, deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a surgical treatment involving the implantation of a medical device called a brain pacemaker, which sends electrical impulses to specific parts of the brain. ...

Some futurists, such as Raymond Kurzweil, see brain implants as part of a next step for humans in progress and evolution, whereas others, especially bioconservatives, view them as unnatural, with humankind losing essential human qualities. It is argued that implants would technically change people into cybernetic organisms (cyborgs). Some people fear implants may be used for mind control, e.g. to change human perception of reality. Futurists is a term often used to describe management consultants who advise corporations on a wide range of global trends, risk management and potential market opportunities. ... Raymond Kurzweil (pronounced: ) (born February 12, 1948) is a pioneer in the fields of optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, speech recognition technology, and electronic keyboard instruments. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... The unnatural is a general term used to describe things that are of moral inferiority to those in nature. ... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin: wise man or knowing man) in the family Hominidae (the great apes). ... The term implant has different meanings: in Scientology, see Implant (Scientology) in medicine, see prosthesis This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The term cyborg, a portmanteau of cybernetic organism, is used to designate a creature which is a mixture of organic and mechanical parts. ... Mind control (or thought control) has the premise that an outside source can control an individuals thinking, behavior or consciousness (either directly or more subtly). ... In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. ... Reality in everyday usage means the state of things as they actually exist. ...

Brain implants in fiction and philosophy

Brain implants are now part of modern popular culture but there were early philosophical references of relevance as far back as René Descartes. René Descartes (French IPA: ) (March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650), also known as Renatus Cartesius (latinized form), was a highly influential French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. ...

In his 1638 Discourse on the Method, a study on proving self existence, Descartes wrote that a person would not know if an evil demon had trapped his mind in a black box and was controlling all inputs and outputs. Philosopher Hilary Putnam provided a modern parallel of Descartes argument in his 1989 discussion of a brain in a vat, where he argues that brains which were directly fed with an input from a computer would not know the deception from reality. The Discourse on Method is a philosophical and mathematical treatise published by René Descartes in 1637. ... Hilary Whitehall Putnam (born July 31, 1926) is an American philosopher who has been a central figure in Western philosophy since the 1960s, especially in philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. ... In philosophy, the brain-in-a-vat is any of a variety of thought experiments intended to draw out certain features of our ideas of knowledge, reality, truth, mind, and meaning. ... Reality in everyday usage means the state of things as they actually exist. ...

Popular science fiction discussing brain implants and mind control became widespread in the 20th century, often with a dystopian outlook. Literature in the 1970s delved into the topic, including The Terminal Man by Michael Crichton, where a man suffering from brain damage receives an experimental surgical brain implant designed to prevent seizures, which he abuses by triggering for pleasure. Mind control (or thought control) has the premise that an outside source can control an individuals thinking, behavior or consciousness (either directly or more subtly). ... The Terminal Man is a novel by Michael Crichton. ... Michael Crichton (born October 23, 1942, pronounced [1]) is an American author, film producer, film director, and television producer. ...

Cyberbrain Implants in the Ghost in the Shell TV series

Fear that the technology will be misused by the government and military is an early theme. In the 1981 BBC serial The Nightmare Man the pilot of a high-tech mini submarine is linked to his craft via a brain implant but becomes a savage killer after ripping out the implant. In the 1983 film Brainstorm the military tries to take control over a new technology that can record and transfer thoughts, feelings, and sensations. A character has a brain implant which is supposed to prevent future aggression in the BBC TV series Blake's 7, after being convicted of killing an officer from the oppressive Federation. The cyberbrains from Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex This work is copyrighted. ... The cyberbrains from Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex This work is copyrighted. ... The Nightmare Man is a science fiction and horror television serial, produced by the BBC in 1981. ... Brainstorm is a 1983 MGM horror/thriller/science fiction film directed by Douglas Trumbull and starring Christopher Walken and Natalie Wood (in her last film appearance). ... Blakes 7 is a British science fiction television series made by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) for their BBC 1 channel. ...

Perhaps the most influential novel exploring the world of brain implants was William Gibson's 1984 Neuromancer. This novel is the first in a genre that has come to be known as "cyberpunk" and follows a computer hacker through a world where mercenaries are augmented with brain implants to enhance strength, vision, memory, etc. Gibson coins the term "matrix" and introduces the concept of "jacking in" with head electrodes or direct implants. He also explores possible entertainment applications of brain implants such as the "simstim" (simulated stimulation) which is a device used to record and playback experiences. There are a number of people who have been (or are) named William Gibson. ... For the 1988 video game, see Neuromancer (video game). ...

Gibson's work led to an explosion in popular culture references to brain implants. Its influences are felt, for example, in the 1989 roleplaying game Shadowrun, which borrowed his term "datajack" to describe a brain-computer interface. The implants in Gibson's novels and short stories formed the template for the 1995 film Johnny Mnemonic and later, The Matrix Trilogy. Shadowrun is a cyberpunk-urban fantasy cross-genre role-playing game, set in the years 2050-2070 following a great cataclysm that has brought use of magic back to the world, just as it begins to embrace the marvels (and dangers) of technologies such as cyberspace, omnipresent computer networks, genetic... Johnny Mnemonic is a short story by William Gibson, and a movie loosely based on the short story. ... The Matrix series consists of the films The Matrix, The Matrix Reloaded, and The Matrix Revolutions, all written and directed by the Wachowski brothers. ...

The extreme box office success of the Matrix films combined with earlier science fiction references have made brain implants ubiquitous in popular literature.

Cyberbrain neural augmentation technology is the focus of the Ghost in the Shell anime and manga franchise. Implants of powerful computers provide vastly increased memory capacity, total recall, as well as the ability to view his or her own memories on an external viewing device. Users can also initiate a telepathic conversation with other cyberbrain users, the downsides being cyberbrain hacking, malicious memory alteration, and the deliberate distortion of subjective reality and experience. Cyberbrain is an artificially augmented brain from the Ghost in the Shell series. ... Motoko Kusanagi from the manga Ghost in the Shell. ... The main cast of the anime Cowboy Bebop (1998) (L to R: Spike Spiegel, Jet Black, Ed Tivrusky, Faye Valentine, and Ein the dog) For the oleo-resin, see Animé (oleo-resin). ... Manga )   (pl. ...

Pulp fiction with implants or brain implants include the novel series Typers, film Spider-Man 2, the TV series Earth: Final Conflict and numerous computer games. Spider-Man 2 is a 2004 superhero film developed by Alfred Gough, Miles Millar, Michael Chabon, written by Alvin Sargent, and directed by Sam Raimi. ... Earth: Final Conflict is a science fiction television series posthumously created by Gene Roddenberry. ...

See also

• Sensory substitution
• Mind control
• Biomedical engineering
• Cognotechnology
• Brain-computer interface
• Artificial brain
• Neuroprosthetics
• Cochlear implant
• Simulated reality

Sensory substitution is the principle to transform characteristics of one sensory modality into stimuli of another sensory modality. ... Mind control (or thought control) has the premise that an outside source can control an individuals thinking, behavior or consciousness (either directly or more subtly). ... The AbioCor artificial heart, an example of a biomedical engineering application of mechanical engineering with biocompatible materials for Cardiothoracic Surgery using an artificial organ. ... MRI scan displaying cross-section of the human brain Cognotechnology is an emerging field that is technology applied to the cognitive domain, and is the result of a convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnology and information technology, according to Gerald Yonas, vice president and principal scientist at Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico... // A brain-computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain-machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal brain (or brain cell culture) and an external device. ... Artificial brain is the research to develop hardware that has cognitive abilities similar to the human brain. ... Neuroprosthetics is an area of neuroscience concerned with neural prostheses, developing artificial devices to replace or improve the function of an impaired nervous system. ... Illustration of the internal parts of a cochlear implant. ... This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling. ...

References

External links

• Theodore Berger's Website
• Scientific American article on Jose Delgado
• Discover Magazine article on brain implants
• Neurotech Reports article on neural-silicon hybrid chips

Further reading

• Theodore W. Berger's book Toward Replacement Parts for the Brain ISBN 0-262-02577-9.
• Jose Delgado's book Physical Control of the Mind