The separation of powers (or trias politica, a term coined by French political Enlightenment thinker Montesquieu) is a model for the governance of democratic states. Politics is the process by which individuals or relatively small groups attempt to exert influence over the actions of an organization. ... Information on politics by country is available for every country, including both de jure and de facto independent states, inhabited dependent territories, as well as areas of special sovereignty. ... Political science is the field of the social sciences concerning the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. ... Political history is what most people refer to simply as history. ... This is a list of notable political scientists. ... Comparative government or more correctly comparative politics is the field in political science that focuses on comparing the varying forms of government in the world, and the states they govern, though it may also compare governments across different periods of history. ... International relations (IR), a branch of political science, is the study of foreign affairs of and relations among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). ... Political economy was the original term for the study of production, the acts of buying and selling, and their relationships to laws, customs and government. ... Political philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about the state, government, politics, liberty, property, rights, law and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it... Political psychology is an interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to the study of the psychology behind political behavior by voters, lawmakers, local and national governments and administrations, international organizations, political parties and associations. ... A form of government is a colloquial term that refers to the set of political institutions by which a state is organized in order to exert its powers over a political community [1] Note that this definition holds valid even if the government is illegitimate or if it is unsuccessful... Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (e. ... Public administration is, broadly speaking, the study and implementation of policy. ... Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science referring to the way that the administrative execution and enforcement of legal rules is socially organized. ... Street-level bureaucracy is a term used to refer to a public agency employee who actually performs the actions that implement laws. ... Consent of the governed is a political theory that says a governments legitimacy and moral right to use state power is, or ought to be, derived from the people or society over which that power is exercised. ... The psychodynamics of decision-making form a basis to understand institutional functioning. ... Politics is the process by which individuals or relatively small groups attempt to exert influence over the actions of an organization. ... A form of government (also referred to as a system of government or a political system) is a system composed of various people, institutions and their relations in regard to the governance of a state. ... Anarchy (Greek: αναρχία) is the anarchist society, the stateless society of free people. ... The Ancient Greek term aristocracy meant a system of government with rule by the best. This is the first definition given in most dictionaries. ... An Autocracy is a form of government in which unlimited power is held by a single individual. ... Despotism is a form of government by a single authority, either a single person (ie. ... A dictatorship is a autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by a dictator. ... Places where monarchies maintain rule appear in blue. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Oligarchy (Greek , Oligarkhía) is a form of government where political power effectively rests with a small, elite segment of society (typically the most powerful, whether by wealth, family, military strength, or political influence). ... States in which a single party is constitutionally linked to power are coloured in brown. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A legislature is a type of representative deliberative assembly with the power to adopt laws. ... An election is a decision making process where people choose people to hold official offices. ... It has been suggested that ballot be merged into this article or section. ... An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... A political party is an organization that seeks to attain political power within a government, usually by participating in electoral campaigns. ... The Age of Enlightenment refers to either the eighteenth century in European philosophy, or the longer period including the seventeenth century and the Age of Reason. ... Portrait of Montesquieu in 1728. ... Democracy (literally rule by the people, from the Greek demos, people, and kratos, rule) is a form of government for a nation state, or for an organization in which all the citizens have an equal vote or voice in shaping policy or electing government officials. ... A state is a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the rules that govern the people in one or more societies, having internal and external sovereignty over a definite territory. ...

Under this model the state is divided into branches, and each branch of the state has separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility; however, each branch is also able to place limited restraints on the power exerted by the other branches. The normal division of branches is into the executive (or government), the legislature, and the judiciary. The US system refers to the branches as "branches of government", while some systems use "government" to describe the executive. A legislature is a type of representative deliberative assembly with the power to adopt laws. ... In law, the judiciary or judicature is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state, and provide a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Proponents of separation of powers believe that it protects democracy and forestalls tyranny; opponents of separation of powers believe that on the contrary it reduces the effectiveness of the state and hinders democracy. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

No democratic system exists with an absolute separation of powers or an absolute lack of separation of powers. Nonetheless some systems are clearly based on the principle of separation of powers while others are clearly based on an entwining of powers.

Constitutions with a high degree of separation of powers are found worldwide, and are particularly common in the Americas, where the US system was the first such system. Most European constitutions use a semi-presidential system with only a weak separation of powers. The UK system is distinguished by a particular entwining of powers. Other democratic systems with little separation of powers include India and New Zealand. Canada also makes limited use of separation of powers in practice, although in theory makes considerable distinction between branches of government. The politics of Europe deals with the continually evolving politics within the continent. ... The Westminster system is a democratic system of government modelled after that of the United Kingdom system, as used in the Palace of Westminster, the location of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. ...

Separation of powers systems are almost always presidential. A presidential system, also called a congressional system, is a system of government where the executive branch exists and presides (hence the term) separate from the legislature, to which it is not accountable, and which cannot in normal circumstances dismiss it. ...

Writings of Montesquieu

Montesquieu described division of political power between an executive, a legislature, and a judiciary. He based this model on his perception of the British constitutional system, a system which he perceived to be based on a separation of powers between King, parliament and the law courts. Subsequent writers have noted that this was misleading since Great Britain had a very closely connected legislature and executive, and further links with the judiciary though combined with judicial independence. Portrait of Montesquieu in 1728. ... Political power (imperium in Latin) is a type of power held by a person or group in a society. ... A legislature is a type of representative deliberative assembly with the power to adopt laws. ... In law, the judiciary or judicature is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state, and provide a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. ... Judicial independence is the doctrine that decisions of the judiciary should be impartial and not subject to influence from the other branches of government or from private or political interests. ...

Separation of powers and Presidentialism

Separation of powers systems are almost always presidential, although theoretically this need not be the case. There are a few historical exceptions such as the Directoire system of revolutionary France. Switzerland offers an example of non-Presidential separation of powers today: It is run by a seven-man executive branch of state, the Federal Council. However some might argue that Switzerland does not have a strong separation of powers system, the Federal Council being initially appointed by parliament (but not dependent on parliament), and the judiciary having no judicial review powers. For the pop band, see Presidents of the United States of America. ... The Directory (in French Directoire) held executive power in France from October 1795 until November 1799 - from the end of the Convention to the beginning of the Consulate. ... The Swiss Federal Council (in German, Schweizerische Bundesrat; in French, Conseil fédéral suisse; in Italian, Consiglio federale svizzero; in Romansh, Cussegl federal svizzer) is the seven-member executive council which constitutes the government of Switzerland, as well as assuming functions corresponding to those of the head of state...

Checks and balances

The phrase "checks and balances" was originally coined by Montesquieu. As such, when employing a system of checks and balances for governmental action to be processed, it must pass through a so-called Montesquieuian gauntlet. In a system of government with competing sovereigns (such as a multi-branch government or a federal system), "checks" refers to the ability, right, and responsibility of each power to monitor the activities of the other(s); "balances" refers to the ability of each entity to use its authority to limit the powers of the others, whether in general scope or in particular cases. Portrait of Montesquieu in 1728. ...

Keeping each independent entity within its prescribed powers can be a delicate process. Public support, tradition, and well-balanced tactical positions do help maintain such systems. Checks and balances make sure one branch is not too powerful.

The essential difference between the separation of powers as developed in common law theory and in France was that in the former, the checks and balances inherent in the mixed constitution and in Montesquieu's analysis were incorporated into the doctrine. In France, on the other hand, the judges were regarded as sources themselves of tyranny and not liberty as in England, and the hostility of Jean-Jacques Rousseau to any check or limit on the popular will, combined to establish the 'non-interference' model of the separation of powers. Mixed government, also known as a mixed constitution, is a form of government that integrated facets of democracy, oligarchy, and monarchy. ... Jean-Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 – July 2, 1778) was a Genevan philosopher of the Enlightenment whose political ideas influenced the French Revolution, the development of socialist theory, and the growth of nationalism. ...

Seal of the U.S. Congress. ... For the pop band, see Presidents of the United States of America. ... The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and is the only part of the judicial branch of the United States federal government explicitly specified in the United States Constitution. ... A subpoena is a writ commanding a person to appear under penalty (from Latin). ... A senate is a deliberative body, often the upper house or chamber of a legislature. ... House of Representatives is a name used for legislative bodies in many countries. ... Executive privilege is a claim asserted by the President of the United States and other members of the executive branch to justify withholding of documents and information from other branches of government. ... A bully pulpit is a public office of sufficiently high rank that it provides the holder with an opportunity to speak out and be listened to on any matter; the American presidency is a bully pulpit. It is thought of as an executive check on legislative powers. ... Constitutionality is the status of a law, procedure, or act being in accordance with the laws or guidelines contained in a constitution. ...

Maintaining balance

The independence of the executive and legislative branches is partly maintained by the fact that they are separately elected, and are held directly accountable to the public. There are also judicial prohibitions against certain types of interference in each others' affairs. (See "separation of powers" cases in the List of United States Supreme Court cases.) Judicial independence is maintained by life appointments, with voluntary retirement, and a high threshold for removal by the legislature. Recently the accusation of judicial activism has been levelled at some judges, and that the power of interpretation of law is misused. This is a chronological list of notable cases decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. ... Judicial activism is the tendency of some judges to take a flexible view of their power of judicial interpretation, especially when such judges import subjective reasoning that displaces objective evaluation of applicable law. ...

The legal mechanisms constraining the powers of the three branches depend a great deal on the popular sentiment of the people of the United States. Popular support establishes legitimacy, and makes possible the physical implementation of legal authority. National crises (such as the Civil War, the Great Depression, pre-Pearl enjoyed their sovereign powers continuously since the founding of the republic.

The system of checks and balancing is also self-reinforcing. Potential abuse of power is deterred and the legitimacy and sustainability of any power grab is undermined by the ability of the other two branches to take corrective action. This is intended to reduce opportunities for tyranny.

However, as James Madison wrote in Federalist 51 regarding the ability of each branch to defend itself from actions by the others, "But it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates." Bicameralism was, in part, intended to reduce the relative power of the legislature, by turning it against itself, by having "different modes of election and different principles of action." (This is one of the arguments against the popular election of Senators, which was instituted by the Seventeenth Amendment.) But when the legislature is unified, it wields dominant, unbalanced, power over the other branches. James Madison (March 16, 1751 – June 28, 1836) was an American politician and fourth President of the United States (1809–1817). ... An advertisement for The Federalist The Federalist Papers are a series of 85 articles arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution. ... Amendment XVII (the Seventeenth Amendment) of the United States Constitution proposed on May 13, 1912 and ratified on April 8, 1913 and first in effect for the election of 1914, amends Article 1 Section 3 of the Constitution to provide for the direct election of Senators by the people of...

Fourth branch: Independent executive agencies

The federal executive is a very large bureaucracy, and due to civil service rules, most middle- and low-level employees do not change when a new person becomes President. (New high-level officials are usually appointed and must be confirmed by the Senate.) Moreover, semi-independent agencies (such as the Federal Reserve or the Federal Communications Commission) may be created by the legislature within the executive, which exercise legally defined regulatory powers. High-level regulators are appointed by the President and confirmed by the legislature, and must follow the law and perhaps certain lawful executive orders. But they often sit for long, fixed terms and enjoy reasonable independence from other policy makers. Because of its importance to modern governance, the regulatory bureaucracy of the executive is sometimes referred to as a "fourth" branch of government. Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science referring to the way that the administrative execution and enforcement of legal rules is socially organized. ... A civil servant or public servant is a civilian career public sector employee working for a government department or agency. ... The Federal Reserve System is headquartered in the Eccles Building on Constitution Avenue in Washington, DC. The Federal Reserve System (also the Federal Reserve; informally The Fed) is the central banking system of the United States. ...

Fourth branch: The press

The press has also been described as a "fourth power" because of its considerable influence over public opinion (which it wields by widely distributing facts and opinions about the various branches of government). Public opinion in turn affects the outcome of elections, as well as indirectly influencing the branches of government by, for example, expressing public sentiment with respect to pending legislation. The press is also sometimes referred to as the Fourth Estate, a term of historical French origin, which is not related to the modern three-branch system of government. Originally, the First Amendment of the United States Constitution explicitly guaranteed freedom of the press only against interference by the federal government. Later this right was extended by the United States Supreme Court in the Incorporation Cases to cover state and local governments. Traditionally, the press has been the "voice of the people" keeping government somewhat in check. An example of this was the Watergate scandal; where two Washington Post reporters exposed government corruption and coverup at the highest levels of government. This exposure caused many individuals to either resign, be fired, or prosecuted. Within the last decades it has been well established that large Media conglomerates have heavily influenced the press by editorializing the reported stories. This has been accomplished by the procurement of various News entities who have lost their autonomy and impartiality. It is well known that Media Conglomerates are staunch supporters of various government officials. Patterns of past performance have indicated that the conglomerate editorializing have usually been in favor of such Officials. This has caused somewhat of a deterioration in the "voice of the people". Mass media is a term used to denote, as a class, that section of the media specifically conceived and designed to reach a very large audience (typically at least as large as the whole population of a nation state). ... A reporter The term Fourth Estate refers to the press, both in its explicit capacity of advocacy and in its implicit ability to frame political issues. ... The First Amendment to the United States Constitution is a part of the United States Bill of Rights. ... The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. ... The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C., (large image) The Supreme Court of the United States, located in Washington, D.C., is the highest court (see supreme court) in the United States; that is, it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States... Incorporation of the Bill of Rights is the legal doctrine by which portions of the U.S. Bill of Rights are applied to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. ... The term Watergate refers to a series of events, spanning from 1972 to 1974, that got its name from burglaries of the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate Hotel complex in Washington, D.C.. Though then-President Nixon had endured two years of mounting political embarrassments, the... ... When a scandal breaks, the discovery of an attempt to cover up the evidence of wrongdoing is often regarded as even more scandalous than the original deeds. ... It has been suggested that Media Institution be merged into this article or section. ... An editorial is a statement or article by a news organization (generally a newspaper) that expresses an opinion rather than attempting to simply report news, as the latter should ideally be done without bias. ... Procurement is the acquisition of goods or services at the best possible total cost of ownership, in the right quantity and quality, at the right time, in the right place for the direct benefit or use of the governments, corporations, or individuals generally via, but not limited to a contract. ...

Fourth branch: Direct Democracy

Direct Democracy Direct democracy, classically termed pure democracy,[1] comprises a form of democracy and theory of civics wherein sovereignty is lodged in the assembly of all citizens who choose to participate. ...

Initiative In political science, the initiative (also known as popular or citizens initiative) provides a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote on a proposed statute, constitutional amendment, charter amendment or ordinance. ...

Referendum Ballots of the Argentine plebiscite of 1984 on the border treaty with Chile A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita, originally a decree of the Concilium Plebis) is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ...

Recall The term recall has a number of meanings: Product recall A recall election Recall to employment after a layoff Recall from memory. ...

Politics as a check

Modern day politics may now be seen as a form of check and balance. The leader of the opposition has the ability to scrutinize the work of the government thus ensuring a further safeguard against any abuse of power by the executive. As a consequence, a leader may fall from power at the following election.

State and local governments

The American states mirror the executive/legislative/judicial split of the federal government. Major cities tend to do so as well, but in general, the arrangements for local and regional governments vary widely. Because the judicial branch is often a part of a state or county government, the geographic jurisdiction of local judges is often not coterminous with municipal boundaries.

In many American states and local governments, executive authority and law enforcement authority are separated by allowing citizens to directly elect public prosecutors (district attorneys and state attorneys-general). In some states, judges are also directly elected.

Many localities also separate special powers from their executive and legislative branches, through the direct election of sheriffs, school boards, transit agency boards, park commissioners, and the like.

Juries (groups of randomly selected citizens) also have an important role in the check-and-balance system. They have the sole authority to determine the facts in most criminal and civil cases, acting as a powerful buffer against arbitrary enforcement by the executive and judicial branches. In many jurisdictions they are also used to determine whether or not a trial is warranted, and in some places Grand Juries have independent investigative powers with regard to government operations.

Unusual systems not using three branches

Palestinian Authority: Two branches

When the Gaza Strip was given to Palestinian control in 2005, it only had executive and legislative branches. Plans, if any, for a judicial branch have not yet been described.

Venezuela: Multiple branches

Main article: Politics of Venezuela

Under reforms to the constitution made by controversial President Hugo Chavez and accepted in a referendum, politics of Venezuela has more than three branches: These are the executive, the legislature, the judiciary, and the citizenry. In addition, reference is made to an electoral branch of government. Politics of Venezuela takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Venezuela is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. ... President Hugo Chávez Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (born July 28, 1954) has been the President of Venezuela since 1999. ... Politics of Venezuela takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Venezuela is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. ...

Taiwan (Republic of China) : Five branches

Some countries take the doctrine further than the three-branch system. The government of the Republic of China, for example, has five branches: the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Control Yuan, and Examination Yuan. (Some European countries have rough analogues to the Control Yuan in the forms of ombudsmen, separate from the executive and the legislature.) The Republic of China (ROC) currently has jurisdiction over Taiwan, Kinmen, Matsu, and the Pescadores Islands (Penghu) and several smaller islands. ... The Executive Yuan (行政院; literally executive court) is the executive branch of the government of the Republic of China. ... The Legislative Yuan building in Zhongzheng District, Taipei City (the view is blocked by the childrens hospital building of the National Taiwan University Hospital). ... The Judicial Yuan (司法院) is one of five branches of the Republic of China government in Taipei and serves as the highest judicial organ in Taiwan. ... The Control Yuan building The Control Yuan main entrance The Control Yuan (監察院; pinyin: Jiānchá Yùan), one of five branches of the Republic of China government in Taipei, is a watchdog agency that monitors (controls) the government. ... The Examination Yuan (考試院) is one of five government branches of the Republic of China and is in charge of validating the qualification of civil servants. ... An ombudsman is an official, usually (but not always) appointed by the government or by parliament, who is charged with representing the interests of the public by investigating and addressing complaints reported by individual citizens. ...

Due in part to the Republic's youth, the relationship between its executive- and legislative branches are poorly defined. An example of the problems this causes is the near complete political paralysis that results when the president, who has neither the power to veto nor the ability to dissolve the legislature and call new elections, cannot negotiate with the legislature when his party is in the minority.[1]

Rejection of the separation of powers: Parliamentary systems

Countries such as the United States use a system of separation of powers. Around the world, a more common system is the parliamentary system. In parliamentary democracies, the executive branch is dependent on, and in a sense part of, the legislature. A parliamentary system, also known as parliamentarianism (and parliamentarism in U.S. English), is distinguished by the executive branch of government being dependent on the direct or indirect support of the parliament, often expressed through a vote of confidence. ...

Case study: United Kingdom

Further information: Constitution of the United Kingdom

Separation of powers is a traditional part of the political thought of the United Kingdom. The executive is drawn from the legislature, and is subordinate to it. Since the executive is drawn from the leadership of the dominant party in parliament, party discipline often results in a de facto situation of executive control of the legislature, although in fact MPs can reject their leadership and vote against them (this is relatively rare but happens from time to time). The House of Lords is the highest court of appeal for civil matters in the United Kingdom and for criminal matters for England, Wales and Northern Ireland, however the House of Lords is the highest appeal for civil cases in Scotland. These appeals are heard by Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (Law Lords) who, in effect, are a committee of the House of Lords. This means that the highest court of appeal is part of the House of Lords and thus part of the legislature. At times, various Home Secretaries have taken decisions which in other countries are judicial, such as the release, or continued detention, of prisoners. Thus it can be seen that in the United Kingdom the three "powers" are not separated, but are entwined. However, this has never threatened British civil government. In contrast, many countries which have adopted separation of powers (especially in Latin America) have suffered from instability (coups d'etat, military dictatorships etc.). Some observers believe that no obvious case exists in which such instability was prevented by the separation of powers. The Constitution of the United Kingdom is an area of uncodified law, consisting of both written and unwritten sources. ... The Secretary of State for the Home Department, commonly known as the Home Secretary, is the minister in charge of the United Kingdom Home Office and is responsible for internal affairs in England and Wales, and for immigration and citizenship for the whole United Kingdom (including Scotland and Northern Ireland). ...

Parliamentary sovereignty is the concept in British constitutional law that a parliament has ultimate authority over all affairs of government, except the monarch. Parliamentary sovereignty, parliamentary supremacy, or legislative supremacy is a concept in constitutional law that applies to some parliamentary democracies. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Constitution of the United Kingdom. ... States currently utilizing parliamentary systems are denoted in red and orange—the former being constitutional monarchies where authority is vested in a parliament, and the latter being parliamentary republics whose parliaments are effectively supreme over a separate head of state. ... This article describes the British monarchy from the perspective of the United Kingdom. ...

• Parliament can make law concerning anything, as long as Royal assent is given.
• No Parliament can bind its successor (that is, it cannot pass a law that cannot be changed or reversed by a future Parliament).
• No body except Parliament can change or reverse a law passed by Parliament.

This means that any legal instrument, international treaty and constitutional convention limiting parliament's power can be overturned by parliament by a simple majority, (assuming Royal assent is given). This is in direct opposition to the concept of separation of powers. // The granting of Royal Assent is the formal method by which a constitutional monarch completes the legislative process of lawmaking by formally assenting to an Act of Parliament. ... // The granting of Royal Assent is the formal method by which a constitutional monarch completes the legislative process of lawmaking by formally assenting to an Act of Parliament. ...

The Crown has distinct functions in its different spheres. Curiosities - such as the Lord Chancellor having an executive, legislative, and judicial role; and the House of Lords being a legislative chamber, but including some senior judges - are in the process of reform. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 seeks to bring a small amount of separation of powers to the British system. Some have defended the current system on the grounds that it discourages judges from making law by judicial rather than legislative means. The Crown is a term which is used to separate the government authority and property of the state in a kingdom from any personal influence and private assets held by the current Monarch. ... This article or section needs a complete rewrite for the reasons listed on the talk page. ... This article is about the British House of Lords. ... The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (2005 c. ...

In recent years there has been talk of the creation of a UK supreme court, although details are undecided. If this were to come into being, it would not be as independent and powerful as the US Supreme Court. It would, however, produce a limited separation of powers as it would be a largely independent high judicial body. On the other hand, it will be partially dependent on whichever government parliament should choose. Crucially, parliament would be able to dissolve such a supreme court by a simple majority vote, under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty.

The press around the world

Main articles: Freedom of the press and public broadcasting

Media freedom is generally considered to be a core supporting mechanism for democratic governments, and it is found in all strong democracies, regardless of the organizational principle of the "branches" of government. Freedom of the press (or press freedom) is the guarantee by a government of free public press for its citizens and their associations, extended to members of news gathering organizations, and their published reporting. ... Public broadcasting is a form of public service broadcasting (PSB) intended to serve the diverse needs of the listening public. ...

Many governments financially support public broadcasting in one way or another, but in strong democracies, even these media outlets enjoy strong editorial independence from the government.

An independent press acts as a powerful check against all forms of government, because it provides information about its activities to the public.

Criticisms

It can be argued that there is no natural distinction between executive and legislative forms of government: legislation passed must always be enacted, and much executive action requires new laws. As such, the division can be said to be an artificial one. This is borne out by the fact that there is no current constitutional system which adopts a complete separation of powers, in the sense of a distribution of the three functions among three independent sets of organs with no overlapping or coordination. Some of the early American States and the French Constitution of 1791 tried strictly to give effect to this doctrine but failed. Instead, most constitutions give slightly overlapping powers to each branch, such as the US president's legislative ability to veto, or judicial power of appointment. The short-lived French Constitution of 1791, adopted by the National Constituent Assembly during the period now known as the French Revolution, went into effect in September 1791 but, due to a series of constitutional crises, had effectively ceased to function as a national constitution by August 1792. ...

Some observers believe that no obvious case exists in which such instability was prevented by the separation of powers. In parliamentary systems such as the United Kingdom the three "powers" are not separated (although the judiciary is independent). However, this has not threatened British stability, because the strong tradition of parliamentary sovereignty serves the purpose of limiting executive power.

In contrast, many countries which have adopted separation of powers (especially in Latin America) have suffered from instability (coups d'etat, military dictatorships, civil war etc). If the separated executive is granted strong powers, it may well encourage instability, because it is less consensus-orientated than a parliamentary system, and because it accustoms the population & political elite to an excessively dominant individual leader. In times of instability, competing political groups can become obsessed with controlling the executive office and it is often the loss of a presidential election which triggers greater instability. In a presidential system, there can only be one winning party, and all others fail entirely to gain power. In contrast, a parliamentary system can allow all political groups to have some share in control of the executive, at least in theory.

Alternatively, if the separated executive is granted few powers, there can be the danger of political gridlock. When the executive cannot control, or in some cases even work with, the legislature, then government action to solve society's problems can be limited. This can be the case when attempting to deal with short-term crises (such as the French government finding it difficult to pass laws to deal with a flailing economy), or to deal with longer term problems (like the failure of the US government to provide universal healthcare, despite numerous bills and longterm public support for such a system). Gridlock is a term describing an inability to move on a transport network. ...

Political scientists have also noted the tendency for separation of power system, especially those with strong executives, to develop into two-party systems. As the executive functions as a "winner takes all" position, voters and lobby groups tend to operate strategically and will support their preferred choice from the two leading candidates, feeling that a third candidate is a wasted vote or donation. As the executive is usually considered the most important position in government (even in systems with strong legislatures like the U.S.), members of the legislature will coalesce into groups supporting the two dominant executive candidates.

The categories of the functions and corresponding powers of government are inclined to become blurred when it is attempted to apply them to the details of a particular constitution. Some hold that the true distinction lies not in the nature of the powers themselves, but rather in the procedure by which they are exercised.

Sometimes systems with strong separation of powers are pointed out as difficult to understand for the average person, when the political process is often somewhat fuzzy. Then a parlamentarian system often provides a clearer view and it is easier to understand how "politics are made". This is sometimes important when it comes to engaging the people in the political debate and increase the citizen parcipatory.

Related restraint-of-power concepts

• Federalism - (also known as vertical separation of powers) Preventing abuse by dividing governing powers, the separation is usually between municipal, provincial and national governments. See also subsidiarity.

• Rule of law - Prevents arbitrary exercise of the executive power, preserves general and minority rights, and promotes stability and predictability.

• Democracy and civil society - Attempts to constrain elected branches of government to act in the public interest, not in self-interest.

• Separation of church and state or Laïcité - Ensures freedom of religion by preventing government interference in its practice. Also constrains the power of government by maintaining freedom of conscience and belief.

• Civilian control of the military - Helps prevent dictatorship through military rule.

• An Independent Central bank

• Separation of duties in organizations.

A map displaying todays federations. ... Subsidiarity is the idea that matters should be handled by the smallest (or, the lowest) competent authority. ... The rule of law is the principle that governmental authority is legitimately exercised only in accordance with written, publicly disclosed laws adopted and enforced in accordance with established procedure. ... Civil society or civil institutions refers to the totality of voluntary civic and social organizations or institutions which form the basis of a functioning society as opposed to the force backed structures of a state (regardless of that states political system). ... The separation of church and state is a political doctrine which states that the institutions of the state or national government should be kept separate from those of religious institutions. ... Motto of the French republic on the tympanum of a church, in Aups (Var département) which was installed after the 1905 law on the Separation of the State and the Church. ... U.S. President Abraham Lincolns active involvement in the conduct of the American Civil War, which frequently involved pressing his generals to undertake more aggressive actions, set a precedent for the power of the civilian Commander-in-Chief. ... Separation of duties (SoD) is the concept of having more than one person required to complete a task. ...

See also

• Absolute power
• Balance of power (politics)
• Corruption Perceptions Index - Parliamentary systems are, in general, perceived as less corrupt than other systems
• Judicial activism
• List of democracy and elections-related topics
• Separation of powers under the United States Constitution
• Separation of powers in Australia
• Signing statement
• Fifth power
• Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers