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This article is about the edifice. For other meanings, see Bridge (disambiguation).
A bridge is a structure built to span a gorge, valley, road, railroad track, river or other body of water, or any other physical obstacle.
The purpose of a bridge is to allow passage of people, vehicles, trains or ships over an obstacle.
A moveable bridge gives space for tall items such as ship's masts to pass through, or may be used to span distances that are variable in height or distance.
History  Stone bridge "Ponte dei Salti" at Lavertezzo (Ticino) near Locarno The first bridges were simple wooden logs or planks spanning a stream or such; the next examples found use stone, but again as a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. The arch was first used by the Roman Empire for bridges, and many Roman bridges and aqueducts still exist today. The Romans also had cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. Brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost.
During the 18th century, many innovations in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich and Johannes Grubenmann and others.
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, with its high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel, which were first shown at the Eiffel Tower in Paris France.
 Pedestrian bridge over the River Windrush at Bourton_on_the_Water (south west England) | | | | |
Etymology The Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an Old Norse word brygga, meaning "landing stage, gangway, or movable pier".
Types of bridge Bridges may be classified by their use or by the structure employed in their design.
By use A bridge is usually either designed for trains, pedestrian or road traffic or may carry a pipeline or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. In some cases there may be restrictions in use; for example, it may be a bridge carrying a highway and forbidden for pedestrians and bicycles, or a pedestrian bridge, possibly also for bicycles. A bridge which has a series of spans, typically arches, is called a viaduct. An aqueduct is a kind of bridge that carries water, resembling a viaduct. Sometimes a bridge carries a pipeline only. When a bridge spans a road or railroad track, it is often called an overpass (US) or flyover (UK). A skyway is typically a fully-enclosed bridge between two buildings.
Decorative and ceremonial bridges Bridges such as that shown at right are often built much taller than necessary for practical use, simply so that the reflection in the water will complete a circular image. This type, found in oriental gardens, is called a "Moon Bridge", evoking a rising full moon.
Often in palaces a bridge will be built over an artificial waterway as symbolic of a passage to an important place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a sinuous waterway in an important courtyard of the Forbidden City in Beijing, China. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the use of the Emperor, Empress, and their attendants.
By structure
Log bridge  This footbridge was made of trees from the surrounding forest. The earliest bridges were opportunistic use of logs that fell naturally across streams. The first manmade bridges were probably intentionally felled trees. The use of emplaced logs is now sometimes used in temporary bridges used for logging roads, where a forest tract is to be harvested and the road then abandoned. Such log bridges have a severely limited lifetime due to soil contact and subsequent rot and wood-eating insect infestation. Longer lasting log bridges may be constructed by providing well drained footings of stone or concrete combined with regular maintenance to prevent soil infiltration.
Beam bridge The direct descendant of the log bridge, this is now made from steel "I" beams, box beams (hollow rectangular tubes), reinforced concrete, or post-tensioned concrete (concrete with tubes for cable tendons). It is frequently seen in pedestrian bridges and for highway overpasses and flyovers.
Plate girder bridge  Plate girder bridge _ below roadbed type Often seen supporting railroad roadbeds over short spans, this bridge may be a shallow U-shape in cross section with the roadbed at the bottom of the U or the bridge may be entirely under the roadbed. Each side consists of deep steel plate shear members with a strong top and bottom chord, forming what is called an I beam. The top chord is stressed under compression, the bottom under tension. Additional light members are attached to the shear members between the top and bottom chord to add stiffness to the plate and so preventing buckling. The two members of the bridge will be connected at the bottom with additional light truss elements and at the top with decking to form a box structure. See the illustration at the right and the trestle image below.
Box girder bridge These are commonly used for roadway flyovers and for modern elevated structures of light rail transport. They may be fabricated from post-stressed concrete or sheet steel plate. If of concrete, they may be cast in place using falsework supports, removed after completion, or may be prefabricated (as is the steel plate type) in a fabrication yard, then transported and emplaced using cranes. The later method is often used in situation where access for construction is limited to times of light traffic, which may be detoured around the work area using only a limited number of lanes.
Trestle  Steel trestle with plate girder spans A trestle consists of a large number of short spans, supported by splayed vertical elements and is usually for railroad use. Timber trestles were extensively used in the nineteenth century in mountainous areas. These were typically constructed using treated peeled logs as vertical elements with sawn timbers for bracing. Twentieth century construction has eliminated much of the need for trestles by using more extensive grading and tunneling. The trestle shown is a steel structure using relatively long plate girder spans. Trestle structures are also used for the approaches to bridges where required by the local topography.
Truss bridge  Truss bridge for a single track railway, converted to pedestrian use and pipeline support.  Note diagonal bracing between sides Compared to a log or wood beam bridge, a truss bridge can be much more economical in its use of materials, particularly when wood truss members are combined with metal fittings to transfer tension through the structure. Trusses can carry heavier loads over longer spans using shorter elements than can log bridges. Since most early bridges of this type were constructed largely of wood, it is typical that they are either formed from treated wood (typically using creosote) or are protected with a roof and enclosed in building-like siding, forming a covered bridge. There is a substantial variation in the design of trusses, but all use the principle of alternating tension and compression elements (some elements perform both tasks under dynamic loading). Where elements are known by engineering analysis to carry only tension without bending, compression, or shear, they may be made of slender steel rods. The upper chord of a truss is generally in compression, while the lower is in tension.
Bridges generally use a pair of trusses joined with diagonally braced horizontal elements to form a box structure. The roadbed may form part of the upper or lower elements or may be suspended somewhere in the middle. Where a bridge must span a canyon at an angle the side trusses may be offset. This is usually seen where a highway or railroad through a canyon is carried over a stream to take advantage of more favorable grading or construction opportunities presented by the opposite bank.
Truss bridges may be made from almost any material with sufficient rigidity and strength, including peeled logs, wood beams, reinforced concrete, and metal beam structural elements. When made of untreated wood a truss bridge should be covered with a roof and enclosed at the sides to protect the primary structure from dampness and drying cycles in order to prevent both rotting and splitting of the wood members. Such covered bridges are no longer built for practical use but a number remain and are maintained as historical artifacts.
One form of truss bridge uses a large number of small and closely spaced diagonal elements, forming a lattice. Originally a design to allow a substantial bridge to be made from planks, rather than heavy timbers, this type has also been constructed using a large number of relatively light steel members. The individual elements are more easily handled during construction but the bridge will require substantial support during construction. Unlike other types of truss such as are illustrated above and below, a simple lattice truss will transform the applied loads into a thrust, as the bridge will attempt change length under load. This may be resisted by compression or tension elements within the bridge or may be resisted by the foundations at the end of the bridge.
The concepts of the truss are used in other types of bridges and in components of bridges such as the deck structures of some suspension bridges and a special form of a truss bridge is the Bailey bridge.
 First Bridge at Wuhan, China - a multiple span double deck truss bridge crossing the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) river. Two tracks of railroad are caried on the lower deck and four lanes of motor vehicle traffic are caried above.
Compression arch bridge  Modern reinforced concrete arch bridges. The one further back is a replacement to span this tributary stream of the Chang Jiang in the now flooded China  Compression arch Suspended-deck bridge (foreground), beam bridge in background This form was the earliest type of bridge that could form long spans using stone, brick, or unreenforced concrete. Such materials are strong in compression and somewhat so in shear, and cannot resist much force in tension.
In most arch bridges the roadway rides on or above the supporting structure. Early roman aqueducts use a vertical stack of such bridges, progressing from long wide spans to shorter and narrower as elevation is added in order to obtain height while maintaining rigidity in the supporting structure by avoiding tall, thin vertical elements.
This type is still used in canal viaducts and roadways as it has a pleasing shape, particularly when spanning water, as the reflections of the arches form a visual impression of circles or ellipses.
Most modern compression arch bridges are made from reinforced concrete. This type of bridge is suitable where a temporary supporting falseworks may be erected to support the forms, reinforcements, and uncured concrete. When the concrete as sufficiently set the forms and falseworks are then removed.
Compression arch suspended-deck bridge Made from modern materials such as steel or reinforced concrete, the compression arch soars above the roadbed. Cables connect the roadbed to the arch. One of the most famous bridges of this type is found in Australia. Where the arch cannot neither supported from below nor brought to completion by flying cantilevers it is brought out from each landing point using temporary cable stays supported from temporary towers, kept from tipping inward by stays downward to earth anchors.
Simple suspension bridge Suspension bridges are another early bridge type and are still formed from native materials, chiefly grass rope, in some areas of South America. These rope bridges must of course be periodically renewed owing to the limited lifetime of the materials, and rope components are made and contributed by families as contributions to a community endevor. A more permanent variation, suitable for pedestrian and sometimes equestrian use, may be made from simple wire rope. In such bridges, the roadbed of the bridge will follow the downward and upward arc of the load bearing cables, with additional light ropes at a higher level used to form handholds. Owing to practical limitation in the grade and the response to dynamic loads of the bridge deck this type is quite restricted in its load carrying capacity relative to its span. To walk a lighter bridge of this type at a reasonable pace requires a particular gliding step, as the more normal walking step will induce traveling waves that can cause the traveler to pitch (uncomfortably) up and down or side-to-side. Such a bridge may be stabilized by additional cables that do not bear the primary structural or live loads and so may be relatively light. These also add stability in wind.  This simple suspension bridge for pedestrians has lattice sides to stabilize the deck.
Suspended-deck suspension bridge  A plate deck suspension bridge over the Chang Jiang ( Yangtze) river in China Modern vehicle-carrying suspension bridges use towers to support the main load bearing cables. These cables must be securely anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables. This type of bridge is the only practical type usable for very long spans, where topography prohibits or it is hazardous to maritime traffic to add temporary or permanent central supports. This kind of bridge is particularly pleasing to the visual senses, with one beautiful example of the type being the Golden Gate Bridge at the entrance to San Francisco Bay. It is generally not suited for heavy rail applications as the bridge will flex under the concentrated load of a locomotive. Most suspension bridges have used light truss structures to support the roadbed (particularly owing to the unfavorable effects of using plate girders, discovered accidentally). Recent developments in bridge aerodynamics have allowed the re_introduction of plate structures. In the illustration to the right, note the very sharp entry edge and sloping undergirders in the suspension bridge shown. This enables this type of construction to be used without the danger of vortex shedding and consequent aeroelastic effects such as those that destroyed the Tacoma Narrows Bridge.
Cable-stayed bridge  Portion of the Rio-Antirio three tower bridge, in Greece, the world's longest cable stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges are relatively modern. The design uses a number of individual cables from the tower to the roadway. These do not arc (except under their own weight) but proceed in straight lines to multiple attachment points along the roadway. Towers may hold a single set of cables that tie to the center of the roadway as shown at right, or may contain two sets tied to the edges of the roadway.
An advantage of this type over the suspension types outlined above is that strong bridgehead anchorages to resist the pull of the cables are not required, instead, the deck is under compression. This makes this type of bridge applicable to locations with poor soil conditions, provided that the towers can be securely anchored. The bridge shown at the left is a three tower span over the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) river just below the Gezhouba Dam. In this bridge the central tower is taller than the flanking towers and the complete bridge forms a particularly dramatic impression.
Perhaps the most aesthetically pleasing single tower bridge is the recently completed (opened July 4, 2004) Sundial Bridge, a glass decked pedestrian bridge crossing the Sacramento River at Redding, California. This bridge is unusual in that it has stays on only one side of a single angled spar tower.
The recently completed Rio-Antirio bridge provides an innovative solution to two very difficult site problems. This bridge spans the Straits of Corinth, and at this location the bottom is unsuitable for conventional foundations owing to a soft and deep bottom. In addition, the strait itself is expanding under the forces of plate tectonics and is subject to periodic earthquakes.
The recently completed Millau Viaduct is the tallest bridge in the world.
Self-supporting suspension bridge  Proposed self_anchored suspension span A bridge type combining elements of a suspended_deck suspension bridge and a cable stayed bridge has been proposed as a replacement for the eastern span of the San Francisco_Oakland Bay Bridge and would be the largest bridge this type constructed. Similar to a cable stayed bridge this type does not impose horizontal tension forces upon its anchorages (the horizontal forces are transferred to the tower, through the deck) _ it is considered to be a self_anchored bridge, with its terminal piers providing only stabilizing forces. As with a suspension bridge, the vertical deck loads are transferred to the primary cables by suspender cables. Unlike other suspension and cable stayed bridges the deck of this type of bridge must be supported from below during construction. This particular design has engendered a great amount of engineering controversy and multi_billion dollar cost overruns. It may not be built as illustrated as the costs of construction appear to be too unpredictable, leading to only one very high bid. See the Bay Bridge article for additional information.
Cantilever bridge  Forth Rail Bridge _ a cantilever bridge  Temporary cables supporting a compression arch bridge during construction, forming a cantilever This is employed mostly to overcome construction difficulties where it is not practical to temporarily support the bridge from below during construction. Being relatively rigid it is suitable for heavy rail applications, suitable to support the concentrated load of a locomotive. While as a form of architectural structure a cantilever usually has but one extended side, in bridges the structure is usually composed of at least two balanced pairs of cantilevers. An advantage of the cantilever is that it can be constructed by working only from the support caissons - this is done by building each side of the cantilever pair in synchronization to ensure the balance of the structure. Most bridge cantilevers uses a pair balanced structures, with two equal cantilevers extending, one to each side, from a central tower. Typically, two such double cantilevers upon completion will be securely anchored to massive supports at their outer spans to resist the inward tipping of the cantilevers, with a substantial gap between the two cantilevers. Between each pair of cantilevers a prefabricated central span may be lifted into place using cables or the central span may be fabricated in place from pieces, once the extreme portions of the bridge are securely anchored. The eastern span of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge uses this basic structure but with built-up lattice beams and plate rod tension elements. This portion of the Bay Bridge is soon to be replaced by a more modern (and supposedly more earthquake resistant) span. Probably the most famous of all cantilever bridges is the Forth Rail Bridge over the Firth of Forth in Scotland, notable for its innovative use of tubular structural elements and its use of three balanced cantilevers.
The cantilever principle is used during the construction of compression arch bridges. In most modern long span construction, temporary vertical towers are used with cable stays to hold up the arch, which is built in sections, each attached to a new stay. This method is similar to that used to construct a cable stayed bridge. Substantial backstays are anchored in the ground to resist the inward tipping forces on the towers. Upon near completion a short jack bridge is placed across the final gap and the arches are pushed apart to receive the final arch segments. Upon completion the stays, backstays, jack bridge, and temporary towers are removed. The use of the temporary tower greatly reduces the amount of material required and simplifies the design. Compression arch bridges may be built using self supporting cantilevers during construction but as the loads on elements can vary in tension and compression between construction and final use this may lead to a less efficient use of materials.
Pontoon bridge A pontoon bridge consists of a deck supported by tank- or boat-like floats. To allow passage of boats or ships requires either a conventional bridge at some point or a means of pivoting a section, or the whole of the bridge, for passage. This type of bridge is typically used for temporary military use, but a number of permanent bridges of this type have also been built.
Moveable bridges For small bridges these bridge movement may be enabled without the need for an engine. Some bridges are operated by the users, especially those with a boat, others by a bridge-person, sometimes remotely using video-cameras and loudspeakers. Generally the bridges are powered by electric motors, wether operating winches or hydraulic pistons.
There are often traffic lights for the road and water traffic, and moving barriers for the road traffic.
Drawbridge  Tower Bridge (1885), London, with a central double bascule bridge and suspension elements To allow ships to pass which can not pass under it, a bridge may be constructed such that it (or part of it) can be turned up (drawbridge; either one part or two, also called a bascule bridge). When first constructed this bridge was operated by steam power.
Swing bridge A swing bridge is a cantilever bridge that pivots in a horizontal plane and so opening a passage on each side of the central support.
Lift bridge In this type an entire span is lifted vertically while staying horizontal. There will be towers at each end that have guiding rails, cables, and counterweights. An example is the Hawthorne Bridge in Portland, Oregon.
Transporter bridge Alternatively, if road traffic is very light, a transporter bridge may be used. These are suspended from cables far above the water. These cables carry travelers that support suspension cables for a single deck section. This deck section traverses at water level, but does not touch the water. Its operation is similar to that of a ferryboat.
Tilt bridge  Gateshead Millennium Bridge The tilting Gateshead Millennium Bridge spanning the river Tyne between Gateshead on the south bank and Newcastle upon Tyne on the north (see image below), is a pedestrian bridge with two huge hydraulic rams at each side that tilt the structure back allowing small boats, etc. through.
Curling bridge A new type of bridge designed by the innovative English designer, Thomas Heatherwick, has recently been completed in London. This bridge consists of eight triangular sections hinged at the walkway level and connected above by two part links that may be collapsed toward the deck by hydraulic pistons. The bridge curls up to form an octagonal form on one side of the waterway spanned.
Jetway Smaller moveable bridges, called jetways, are used in airports to allow passengers to cross the variable distances and heights between the terminal building and aircraft of varying sizes. These are attached by a walk_through pivot at the terminal, have telescoping segments to reach the aircraft, and an adjustable, pivoting end with flexible material to mate to the aircraft. The free end of the bridge rides on a closely set pair of tired wheels that are powered and controllable in both direction and rotation. These wheels are connected to the jetway with a hydraulic lift. Thus all necessary aspects of jetway motion are provided — swing, extension, elevation, and aircraft alignment. A control station is provided for the operator.
See also
Outstanding bridges - Akashi Kaikyo Bridge
- Brooklyn Bridge, New York City, 1883 — fifty percent longer than any previous attempt to build a suspension span and revered for its Gothic style
- Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel, Virginia, USA — Arguably the most ambitious bridging project in recent decades; combines bridges, tunnels, and trestles to span 17.6 miles (28.3 km) at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay
- Confederation Bridge, Canada — Connects Prince Edward Island with the Canadian mainland; the longest bridge over waters that freeze in the world
- Forth Rail Bridge, Scotland — An early and innovative multiple cantilever type constructed from tubular elements fabricated from sheet.
- Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California — arguably the most beautiful of all of the suspension bridges, a record span when constructed.
- Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, Louisiana, USA — Dual spans that are the longest bridges in the world, crossing 23 miles (38.4 km) of water
- Millau Viaduct, France — the highest bridge in the world.
- Moodna Viaduct
- Pennybacker Bridge a.k.a. "Loop 360 Bridge", Austin, Texas — an iconic bridge in the Hill Country of central Texas crossing the Colorado River.
- Pulaski Skyway in New Jersey between Newark and Jersey City as part of U.S. Highways 1 and 9.
- Rio-Antirio bridge, Greece — The longest cable_stayed bridge in the world, unique in its solutions to difficult site problems.
- Sundial Bridge, Redding, California — a stunningly dramatic single spar cable stayed bridge for pedestrians
- Sunshine Skyway, Florida, USA
- Sydney Harbour Bridge a.k.a. "Coat Hanger" — the most famous of the suspended deck compression arch types
- Tower Bridge, London — one of the most enduring symbols of London, completed in 1885 during the peak of Britain's iron based industrial age
- Tsing Ma Bridge, Hong Kong – the longest suspension commodating both road and metro service.
- Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge, Boston, Massachusetts — A modern symbol of Boston and the northern terminus of the most expensive single road project in U.S. history, the Big Dig
- London Bridge in London, England — noted neither for its architecture nor as an engineering feat, this bridge is one of the most famous in the world simply because there has continuously been a bridge at this location since Roman times, or about two thousand years.
- London Bridge (Arizona) in Havasu, Arizona — unremarkable but for its history as one of the many London Bridges throughout the ages. This is a stone bridge, replaced by a modern concrete span and brought to its present location as part of a large lakeside development. See London Bridge#New London Bridge
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