The Leicester Caribbean Carnival

The British African-Caribbean (Afro-Caribbean) community are residents of the United Kingdom who are of West Indian background, and whose ancestors were indigenous to Africa.^Term[›] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1600x1200, 394 KB) 8th August 2004, London Road, Leicester I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1600x1200, 394 KB) 8th August 2004, London Road, Leicester I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Leicester Caribbean Carnival is an annual event, held in early August in Leicester, England. ... Roadtown, Tortola The term British West Indies refers to territories in and around the Caribbean which were colonised by Great Britain. ... For other uses, see Africa (disambiguation). ...

As immigration to the United Kingdom from Africa increased in the 1990s, the term has been used to include UK residents solely of African origin, or as a term to define all Black British residents, though this is usually denoted by "African and Caribbean". The most common and traditional use of the term Afro-Caribbean community is in reference to groups of residents continuing aspects of Caribbean culture, customs and traditions in the United Kingdom.^Term[›] Since the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1922 there has been substantial immigration from other parts of the world. ... Black British is term which has had different meanings and uses as a racial and political label. ... West Indian redirects here. ...

The largest proportion of the African-Caribbean population in the UK are of Jamaican origin; others trace origins to smaller nations including Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Montserrat, Dominica, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Guyana, which though located on the South American mainland, has close cultural ties to the Caribbean, and was historically considered to be part of the British West Indies, and Belize (formerly British Honduras), in Central America, which culturally is more akin to the Caribbean than to Latin America, due to its colonial and still-extant economic ties to the UK. South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... Flag of British Honduras British Honduras was the former name of a British colony on the east coast of Central America just to the south-east of Mexico, now the independent nation of Belize. ... Map of Central America Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. ... Latin America consists of the countries of South America and some of North America (including Central America and some the islands of the Caribbean) whose inhabitants mostly speak Romance languages, although Native American languages are also spoken. ...

African-Caribbean communities exist throughout the United Kingdom, though by far the largest concentrations are in London,^[1] Birmingham and the broader West Midlands conurbation. Significant communities also exist in other population centres, notably Manchester, Nottingham, Leicester, Bristol, Leeds, Sheffield, Liverpool and Cardiff. In these cities the community is traditionally associated with a particular area, such as Chapeltown in Leeds or St. Pauls in Bristol.^[2] This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... The city from above Centenary Square. ... The West Midlands conurbation is the name given to the large conurbation that includes the cities of Birmingham and Wolverhampton, in the English West Midlands. ... This article is becoming very long. ... Nottingham is a city (and county town of Nottinghamshire) in the East Midlands of England. ... Leicester city centre, looking towards the Clock Tower Leicester (pronounced ) is the largest city and unitary authority in the English East Midlands region of the UK. The city is the traditional county town of Leicestershire. ... View from Cumberland Basin of the Clifton Suspension Bridge and the Avon Gorge Bristol (IPA: ) is a city, unitary authority and ceremonial county in South West England, 115 miles (185 km) west of London and between the cities of Bath, Gloucester and Newport. ... Leeds is a major city in West Yorkshire, England. ... For other uses, see Sheffield (disambiguation). ... Liverpool skyline. ... Cardiff (English:  Welsh: ) is the capital, largest and core city of Wales. ... Chapeltown is an inner-city suburb of north-east Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, and is the centre of the citys British Afro-Caribbean community. ... St Pauls Church St Pauls is an inner suburb of Bristol, England, situated just north east of the city centre and west of the M32. ...

History

Further information: History of the Caribbean

Combined British and Jamaican flag sometimes used to symbolise multiculturalism^[3]

African-Caribbeans are primarily the descendants of West Africans captured or obtained in trade from African procurers. The Africans were then shipped by European slave traders to English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese colonies founded from the 16th century. On arrival, the majority of Africans were set to work on the vast Caribbean sugar plantations for the benefit of the colonial powers.^[4] The Caribbean The History of the Caribbean reveals the significant role the region played in the colonial struggles of the European powers between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. ... Image File history File links BritishJamaicaflag. ... Image File history File links BritishJamaicaflag. ...  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb[1] West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ... Slavery in the British and French Caribbean refers to slavery in the parts of the Caribbean dominated by France or the British Empire. ... Slave transport in Africa, from a 19th century engraving Trade in slaves, like most of the world, has carried on for thousands of years in Africa. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... // This article is about crop plantations. ...

Migration from the Caribbean to Britain was rare before World War II, and little is known about the experiences of those who made the move. There are records of small communities in the ports of Cardiff, Liverpool and South Shields dating back to the mid-19th century. These communities were formed by freed slaves following the abolition of slavery.^[5] Typical occupations of the early migrants were footmen or coachmen, though a growing Caribbean presence in the British military led to approximately 15,000 migrants arriving in the North-West of England around the time of the First World War to work in munitions factories.^[6] Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Cardiff (English:  Welsh: ) is the capital, largest and core city of Wales. ... Liverpool skyline. ... South Shields is a coastal town in Tyne and Wear, England, on the south bank of the mouth of the River Tyne, with a population of about 90,000. ... Categories: | | ... A footman is a male household servant. ... This article discusses transportation vehicles. ... British military history is a long and varied topic, extending from the prehistoric and ancient historic period, through the Roman invasions of Julius Cæsar and Claudius and subsequent Roman occupation; warfare in the Mediaeval period, including the invasions of the Saxons and the Vikings in the Early Middle Ages... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna...

Since World War II many African-Caribbeans migrated to North America and Europe, especially to the United States, Canada, the UK, and the Netherlands. As a result of the losses during the war, the British government began to encourage mass immigration from the countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth to fill shortages in the labour market.^[7] The 1948 British Nationality Act gave British citizenship to all people living in Commonwealth countries, and full rights of entry and settlement in Britain.^[8] Many West Indians were attracted by better prospects in what was often referred to as the mother country. Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... World map showing North America A satellite composite image of North America. ... This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ... Politics of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland take place in the framework of a constitutional monarchy in which the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... The Commonwealth of Nations (CN), usually known as The Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states all of which are former colonies of the United Kingdom, except for Mozambique and the United Kingdom itself. ... This article concerns the History of British nationality law. ... British nationality law is the law of the United Kingdom concerning British citizenship and other categories of British nationality. ... The Caribbean or the West Indies is a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. ... The Metropole was the name given to the English metropolitan center of the British Empire, i. ...

The "Windrush generation"

The ship Empire Windrush brought the first group of 492 immigrants to Tilbury near London on 22 June 1948. The Windrush was en route from Australia to England via the Atlantic, docking in Kingston, Jamaica. An advert had appeared in a Jamaican newspaper offering cheap transport on the ship for anybody who wanted to come and work in the UK. The arrivals were temporarily housed in the Clapham South deep shelter in southwest London less than a mile away from Coldharbour Lane in Brixton. The Empire Windrush The Empire Windrush was a ship that is an important part of the history of multiracialism in the United Kingdom. ... Tilbury is located on the north bank of the River Thames, in the borough of Thurrock in England, at the point where the river suddenly narrows to about 800 yards/740 metres in width. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... June 22 is the 173rd day of the year (174th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 192 days remaining. ... 1948 (MCMXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1948 calendar). ... “Atlantic” redirects here. ... The City of Kingston is the capital and largest city of Jamaica. ... Clapham South tube station is a station on London Undergrounds Northern Line between Clapham Common and Balham stations. ... The London deep-level shelters are eight deep level air-raid shelters that were built under London Underground stations during World War II. Each consists of a pair of parallel tunnels 16 feet 16 inches (5. ... Coldharbour Lane is a road in South London that leads from Camberwell to Brixton. ... Brixton is an area of South London, England, part of the London Borough of Lambeth. ...

In 1998, an area of public open space in Brixton was renamed Windrush Square to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the arrival of the West Indians.^[9]

Many only intended to stay in Britain for a few years, and although a number returned to the Caribbean to rejoin the RAF, the majority remained to settle permanently.^[10] The arrival of the passengers has become an important landmark in the history of modern Britain, and the image of the Caribbeans filing off its gangplank has come to symbolise the beginning of modern British multicultural society.^[10] (See image here). Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1472x1032, 163 KB) Cropped version of Image:Windrush sign 1. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1472x1032, 163 KB) Cropped version of Image:Windrush sign 1. ... The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the air force branch of the British Armed Forces. ... Multiculturalism is a philosophy that is sometimes construed as ideology advocating that modern society should at least embrace and include distinct cultural groups with equal cultural and political status. ...

There was plenty of work in post-war Britain and industries such as British Rail, the National Health Service and public transport recruited almost exclusively from Jamaica and Barbados.^[11] Though African-Caribbeans were encouraged to journey to Britain via immigration campaigns created by successive British governments, many new arrivals were to endure intolerance and extreme racism from certain sectors of indigenous British society. This experience was to mark African-Caribbeans' relations with the wider community over a long period.^[12] Early African-Caribbean immigrants found private employment and housing denied to them on the basis of race. Housing was in short supply following the wartime bombing, and the shortage led to some of the first clashes with the established white community. Clashes continued and worsened into the 1950s, and riots erupted in cities including London, Birmingham and Nottingham.^[7] In 1958, attacks in the London area of Notting Hill by white youths marred relations with West Indian residents, leading to the creation of the annual Notting Hill Carnival, which was initiated in 1959 as a positive response by the Caribbean community.^[13] In 1962, Britain passed the Commonwealth Immigrants Act restricting the entry of immigrants,^[7] and by 1972 only holders of work permits, or people with parents or grandparents born in the UK could gain entry - effectively stemming most Caribbean immigration.^[8] Despite the restrictive measures, an entire generation of Britons with African-Caribbean heritage now existed, contributing to British society in virtually every field. The number of British persons born in the West Indies had increased from 15,000 in 1951 to 172,000 in 1961 to 304,000 in 1981. The total population of persons of West Indian heritage by 1981 was between 500,000 and 550,000, depending upon the official source used.^[14] Logo of British Rail British Railways (BR), later rebranded as British Rail, ran the British railway system from the nationalisation of the Big Four British railway companies in 1948 until its privatisation in stages between 1994 and 1997. ... , the information in this article describes the current English public health service. ... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime · Hate groups Genocide · Holocaust · Pogrom Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing · Race war Religious persecution · Gay bashing Pedophobia · Ephebiphobia Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism · Supremacism Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights · Gay rights Womens/Universal suffrage · Mens rights Childrens rights · Youth... It has been suggested that Caucasian race be merged into this article or section. ... The city from above Centenary Square. ... Nottingham is a city (and county town of Nottinghamshire) in the East Midlands of England. ... For the film, see Notting Hill (film). ... Approximately 1 million people attend the Notting Hill Carnival each year Carnival dancers on Ladbroke Grove. ... The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. ...

Recession and turbulence, 1970s and 1980s

The 1970s and 1980s were decades of comparative turbulence in wider British society; industrial disputes preceded a period of deep recession and widespread unemployment which seriously affected the economically less prosperous African-Caribbean community.^{Recession[›]} Perceived societal racism, discrimination, poverty, powerlessness and oppressive policing sparked a series of riots in areas with substantial African-Caribbean populations.^[15] These "uprisings" (as they were described by some in the community) took place in St Pauls in 1980, Brixton, Toxteth and Moss Side in 1981, St Pauls again in 1982, Notting Hill Gate in 1982, Toxteth in 1982, and Handsworth, Brixton and Tottenham in 1985.^[16] The riots had a profoundly unsettling effect on local residents, and led the then Home Secretary William Whitelaw to commission the Scarman report to address the root causes of the disturbances. A recession is traditionally defined in macroeconomics as a decline in a countrys real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for two or more successive quarters of a year (equivalently, two consecutive quarters of negative real economic growth). ... An 1837 political cartoon about unemployment in the United States. ... A boy from an East Cipinang trash dump slum in Jakarta, Indonesia shows what he found. ... St Pauls Church St Pauls is an inner suburb of Bristol, England, situated just north east of the city centre and west of the M32. ... The Brixton riot of April 11, 1981 was the most serious riot in London of the century. ... The Toxteth riots of July 1981 arose out of long-standing tensions between police and the black community in inner-city Liverpool, following on from the Brixton riots earlier in the year. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Notting Hill Gate is one of the main thoroughfares of Notting Hill in London. ... The two Handsworth riots occurred in the Handsworth suburb of Birmingham England during the summers of 1981 and 1985. ... The Brixton riot of 1985 started on 28 September in Brixton in South London. ... The Broadwater Farm riot was a riot that occurred in and around the Broadwater Farm area of Tottenham London on 6 October 1985. ... The Secretary of State for the Home Department, commonly known as the Home Secretary, is the minister in charge of the United Kingdom Home Office and is responsible for internal affairs in England and Wales, and for immigration and citizenship for the whole United Kingdom (including Scotland and Northern Ireland). ... The Rt Hon. ... ...

Dancers at the Notting Hill Carnival

The report identified both "racial discrimination" and a "racial disadvantage" in Britain, concluding that urgent action was needed to prevent these issues becoming an "endemic, ineradicable disease threatening the very survival of our society".^[15] The era saw an increase in attacks on Black people by white people. The Joint Campaign Against Racism committee reported that there had been more than 20,000 attacks on non-indigenous Britons including Britons of Asian origin during 1985.^[17] Notting Hill Carnival photo File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Notting Hill Carnival photo File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Approximately 1 million people attend the Notting Hill Carnival each year Carnival dancers on Ladbroke Grove. ... The term British Asian is used to denote a person of South Asian ancestry or origin, who was born in or was an immigrant to the United Kingdom, former heartland of the British Empire. ...

Recent history

While individuals with Caribbean heritage excelled in a variety of fields in British society during the 1990s and 2000s, many recurring issues continued to impact the African-Caribbean community as a whole. The police response to the 1993 murder of Black teenager Stephen Lawrence, by assailants that have yet to be convicted, led to an outcry from the community and calls to investigate police conduct. The subsequent government inquiry, the Macpherson Report, was vigorously sought by Stephen's Jamaican-born parents and revealed evidence of institutional racism in the London Metropolitan Police Service, confirming the beliefs of many Black Britons.^[18] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Institutional racism (or structural racism or systemic racism) is a theoretical form of racism that occurs in institutions such as public bodies and corporations, including universities. ... The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) is the Home Office police force responsible for Greater London, with the exception of the square mile of the City of London. ...

The community has suffered from an increasing association with gun-crime, heightened by high profile murders, such as that of two young women shot outside a Birmingham hair salon in 2003. Several media outlets blamed a “gangster rap culture” in the community,^[19] though Assistant Chief Constable Nick Tofiluk of the West Midlands Police believed that the use of firearms is not an Afro-Caribbean issue alone, and has been on the rise throughout British society.^[20] Tensions between African-Caribbean residents and British Asians in a number of regions have led to confrontations, notably violent disturbances in Birmingham in 2005 where groups from both communities fought and rioted over two nights. There is also evidence of tensions between the African-Caribbean community and the growing number of African immigrants.^[21] The New Year Murders is the name given by the media to the slayings of Letisha Shakespeare, 17, and Charlene Ellis, 18, were shot outside a hair salon in Aston on 2 January 2003. ... Gangsta rap, also known as hardcore hip-hop, was the name given to the subgenre of hip hop which often involved lyrical subjects based on the violence and misogyny inherent in the lifestyle of street thugs and gangsters. ... The West Midlands county The West Midlands Police is the police force covering the West Midlands county in England. ... The term British Asian is used to denote a person of South Asian ancestry or origin, who was born in or was an immigrant to the United Kingdom, former heartland of the British Empire. ... The Birmingham riots of 2005 occurred on two consecutive nights on Saturday October 22 and Sunday October 23, 2005 in the Lozells area of Birmingham, England. ...

Statistics

Further information: United Kingdom Census 2001

Ridley Road Market in Dalston, London, which sells African-Caribbean Music, textiles, and food including goat meat, yams, mangos and spices.^[22]

In the UK Census of 2001,^[23] approximately 566,000 people classified themselves in the category Black Caribbean. Out of a total UK population of approximately 59 million, this amounted to slightly under 1% of the population. UK Census 2001 logo A nationwide census, commonly known as Census 2001, was conducted in the United Kingdom on Sunday 29 April 2001. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (640x607, 219 KB) Summary Ridley Road Market, Dalston, Hackney, London. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (640x607, 219 KB) Summary Ridley Road Market, Dalston, Hackney, London. ... Dalston, looking south towards The City. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... UK Census 2001 logo A nationwide census, commonly known as Census 2001, was conducted in the United Kingdom on Sunday 29 April 2001. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with English population statistics. ...

The total so-called 'visible minority' population (including South Asians, African, East Asians, Mixed and 'Other') was stated as 7.9% of the UK population (4.6 million) - of which 'Black Caribbean' constituted 12%. However, another 677,000 people (approximately 1.2% of the UK population) classified themselves as 'Mixed'. The census states that one third of this group has African-Caribbean and 'White' parents - which expands the demographic impact of the African-Caribbean community to about 1.4% of the UK population. This article is about the geopolitical region in Asia. ... East Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms. ...

In 2001, 61% of African Caribbeans lived in London. With regard to unemployment, men were three times more likely (14%), and women twice as likely (9%), to be unemployed than their 'white' counterparts (5% and 4%). African-Caribbeans were also found to suffer disproportionately lower educational opportunities and be less likely to work either as self-employed or in managerial roles.

The community

Further information: Politics of the United Kingdom  and Education in the United Kingdom

In many parts of Britain, African-Caribbeans have been recognised as being part of a distinct community.^[1] In the 1950s and 1960s community centres and associations sprung up in some British towns and cities with an aim to serve African-Caribbean populations. One such example was the African Caribbean Self Help Organisation (ACSHO) which was formed in 1964 in the district of Handsworth in Birmingham.^[24] These centres have often addressed issues that rise within the community, including perceived problems of police harassment and concerns about the housing of Black people, which was viewed as discriminatory during the early decades of mass immigration.^{Community[›]} Politics of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland take place in the framework of a constitutional monarchy in which the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government. ... Education in the United Kingdom. ... Community centres are public locations where members of a community may gather for group activities, social support, public information, and other purposes. ... Handsworth is an inner city suburb of Birmingham in the West Midlands, England. ... in Britain the Sus law is a stop-and-search law, widely believed to have been abused by the Metropolitan Police to harass young black men. ...

Diane Abbott, born to Jamaican parents, became the first Black woman elected to the House of Commons in 1987

The centres also allowed African-Caribbeans to socialise without risking the potential racial discrimination and aggression of "unfriendly pubs".^[25] Many of these associations appointed a Community Relations Officer whose role was to liaise between the community and wider British society including the establishment. Other responsibilities included arranging social events, such as festivals, carnivals and coach trips, which helped bring the communities together.^[25] Typical of present day centres is the The Afro Caribbean Millennium Centre in Birmingham which was established with National Lottery funding to support principally Caribbean people in areas like employment, housing, education, immigration, and cultural issues.^[26] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1017x1570, 1346 KB) Summary Diane Abbott speaking to a rally at the third European Social Forum. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1017x1570, 1346 KB) Summary Diane Abbott speaking to a rally at the third European Social Forum. ... Diane Julie Abbott (born September 27, 1953 in Paddington, London) is a British Labour Party Member of Parliament, representing the Hackney North and Stoke Newington constituency. ... The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... The Establishment is a pejorative slang term to refer to the traditional and usually conservative ruling class elite and the structures of society which they control. ... A festival is an event, usually staged by a local community, which centers on some unique aspect of that community. ... A play here! sign outside a newsagent, incorporating the National Lotterys logo of a stylised hand with crossed fingers. ...

Although the community does not face any official or informal restrictions on political participation, Britons of Caribbean origin are nonetheless under-represented in local and national politics.^[1] British African-Caribbeans have long asserted that they encounter discriminatory barriers to most middle and higher status occupations, as well as discrimination in hiring practices at all levels of employment. There is also considerable evidence that African-Caribbeans experience differential treatment at the hands of public officials, the British courts and penal system, and the police.^[1] Studies have proposed that the isolation of certain regional urban areas by financial institutions such as insurance brokers, disproportionately affects the community to its detriment.^[1] Participation in political science is an umbrella term including different means for the public to directly participate in political, economical or management decisions. ... Politics of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland take place in the framework of a constitutional monarchy in which the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government. ... For the album by the Kaiser Chiefs see Employment (album) Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ... The United Kingdom does not have a single unified judicial system: England and Wales have one system, Scotland another, and Northern Ireland another. ... Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent loss. ...

Britain's school system, despite efforts to address issues of discrimination,^[27] has often been accused of racism through undermining the self-confidence of all Black children and maligning the culture of their parents.^[28] Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a disproportionate number of Caribbean migrant children were classified as 'educationally subnormal' and placed in special schools and units.^[29] By the end of the 1980s, the chances of white school leavers finding employment were four times better than those of Black pupils. In 2000-01, Black pupils were three times more likely than white pupils and ten times more likely than Indian pupils to be officially excluded from school for disciplinary reasons. These chronic problems have contributed to the group being towards at the lower end of the socio-economic spectrum and have continued to be a problem into the 21st century^[30]. Education in the United Kingdom. ...

African-Caribbean culture in the United Kingdom

Further information: Culture of the United Kingdom

The culture of the United Kingdom is rich and varied, and has been influential on culture on a worldwide scale. ...

Carnivals

African-Caribbean communities organise and participate in Caribbean style carnivals throughout the UK. The best known of these is the annual Notting Hill Carnival, now a multi-cultural experience, attracting up to 1.5 million people from Britain and around the world, making it the largest street festival in Europe.^[31] The carnival began in 1964 as a small procession of Trinidadians in memory of festivals in their home country. Other carnivals include the Leicester Caribbean Carnival, the Leeds West Indian Carnival and the Birmingham International Carnival Caribbean Carnival is an event that takes place in many of the Caribbean islands annually. ... Approximately 1 million people attend the Notting Hill Carnival each year Carnival dancers on Ladbroke Grove. ... Leicester Caribbean Carnival is an annual event, held in early August in Leicester, England. ... The Leeds West Indian Carnival, also called the Chapeltown Carnival, is the longest running West Indian carnival in Europe. ... Birmingham International Carnival takes place biennially in Birmingham, England. ...

Food

Further information: Caribbean cuisine

Scotch bonnet peppers imported from the Caribbean on sale at London's Brixton Market. The peppers are a key ingredient of "Jerk" dishes.

The earliest Caribbean immigrants to post-war Britain found differences in diet and availability of food an uncomfortable challenge.^[32] In later years, as the community developed and food imports became more accessible to all, grocers specialising in Caribbean produce opened in British High streets. Caribbean restaurants can now also be found in most areas of Britain where West Indian communities reside, serving traditional Caribbean dishes such as curried goat, fried dumplings, ackee and salt fish (cod) (the is the national dish of Jamaica), fried plantain, "jerk", steamed cabbage and rice and peas (actually kidney beans).^[33] Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of African, Amerindian, French, Indian, and Spanish cuisine. ... Hot peppers in Brixton market. ... Hot peppers in Brixton market. ... Scotch Bonnet peppers in a Caribbean market The Scotch Bonnet (Capsicum chinense) is a variety of Chile Pepper similar to and of the same species as the habanero. ... Categories: Stub ... Jerk spices packaged in jars Jerk chicken being cooked Jerk chicken as London festival food Jerk is a style of cooking native to Jamaica in which meats (traditionally pork, but now including chicken, fish, beef and even tofu) are dry-rubbed with a fiery spice mixture called Jamaican jerk spice. ... A grocer is a dealer in staple foodstuffs, such as meats, produce or dairy products, and other household supplies. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Main Street. ... Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of African, Amerindian, French, Indian, and Spanish cuisine. ... An Indian chicken curry A curry is any of a variety of distinctively spiced dishes, best-known in Indian, Thai and other South Asian cuisines, but curry has been adopted into all of the mainstream cuisines of the Asia-Pacific area. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Binomial name Blighia sapida K.D.Koenig The Ackee or Akee (Blighia sapida) is a member of the Sapindaceae (soapberry family), native to tropical West Africa in Cameroon, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cote DIvoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo... the world is coming to the end!!!!! cod is going to eat up alive and do us hard up the emmm. ... Species Musa × paradisiaca A big load of plantains in Masaya, Nicaragua Cooking plantains (pronounced plan-TENZ or plan-TAINZ) are a kind of plantains that are generally used for cooking, as contrasted with the soft, sweet banana varieties (which are sometimes called dessert bananas). ... Jerk spices packaged in jars Jerk chicken being cooked Jerk chicken as London festival food Jerk is a style of cooking native to Jamaica in which meats (traditionally pork, but now including chicken, fish, beef and even tofu) are dry-rubbed with a fiery spice mixture called Jamaican jerk spice. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Species Oryza glaberrima Oryza sativa The planting of rice is often a labour-intensive process Terrace of rice paddies in Yunnan Province, southern China. ... Binomial name Pisum sativum L. A pea is the small, edible round green bean which grows in a pod on the leguminous vine Pisum sativum, or in some cases to the immature pods. ... Binomial name Phaseolus vulgaris L. The common bean is an herbaceous annual plant domesticated independently in ancient Mesoamerica and the Andes, and now grown worldwide for its edible bean, popular both dry and as a green bean. ...

Religion

Further information: Religion in the United Kingdom

The influx of African-Caribbeans to the United Kingdom was accompanied by religious practices more common to the North American continent. In Britain, many African-Caribbeans continued to practice Non-conformist Protestant denominations with an Evangelical influence such as Pentecostalism and Seventh Day Baptism. African-Caribbeans have supported new churches in many areas of the country, which have grown to act as social centres for the community.^{Religion[›]} The manner of worship in some of these churches is more akin to that of African American practices, than to traditional English Anglican or Catholic liturgy. Gospel music also came to play a part in British cultural life. African-Caribbeans played a central role establishing British Gospel choirs, most notably the London Community Gospel Choir. St Pauls Cathedral The United Kingdom is traditionally a Christian state, though of the four constituent countries, only England still has a state faith in the form of an established church. ... In English history, a non-conformist is any member of a Protestant congregation not affiliated with the Church of England. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The word evangelicalism usually refers to a broad collection of religious beliefs, practices, and traditions which are found among conservative Protestant Christians. ... The Pentecostal movement within Evangelical Christianity places special emphasis on the direct personal experience of God through the baptism of the Holy Spirit, as shown in the Biblical account of the Day of Pentecost. ... Seventh Day Baptists are Christian Baptists who observe the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day of the week. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... The Church of England is the officially established Christian church[1] in England, and acts as the mother and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion, as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. ... Gospel music refers to the religious music that first came out of African-American churches in the first quarter of the twentieth century or, more loosely, to both black gospel music and to the religious music composed and sung by predominately white Southern Gospel artists. ... The London Community Gospel Choir is a gospel choir who performed with the Childrens Choir of San Fernandez for the Gorillaz hit Dirty Harry. They recorded a version of the OutKast hit Hey Ya! with Razorlight, the b-side to their single Vice. They have also performed with Madonna...

Some British African-Caribbeans continue to practice other religious beliefs such as Rastafarianism, which developed in Jamaica. The Rastafarian belief system, associated personal symbols such as dreadlocks and cultural practices concerning cannabis were to influence British society far beyond the African-Caribbean community being adopted by both indigenous Britons and other ethnic groups residing in the nation.^[34] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Dreadlocks, sometimes called simply dreads or locks, are matted ropes of hair which will form by themselves if the hair is allowed to grow naturally without the use of brushes, combs, razors or scissors for a long period of time. ... Look up Cannabis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Language and dialect

Further information: Jamaican English  and English-based creole languages

English is the official language of the former British West Indies, therefore African-Caribbean immigrants had few communication difficulties upon arrival in Britain compared to immigrants from other regions.^[1] Nevertheless, indigenous Britons were generally unused to the distinct Caribbean dialects, creoles and patois (patwah) spoken by many African-Caribbeans, which would be particularly problematic in the field of education. In a study by language and education specialist Viv Edwards, The West Indian language issue in British schools, language – the Creole spoken by the students – was singled out as an important factor disadvantaging Caribbean children in British schools. The study cites negative attitudes of teachers towards any nonstandard variety noting that; This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... An English-based creole language, or English creole for short, is a creole language that was significantly influenced by the English language. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Look up Anglophone in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Caribbean English is a dialect of the English language spoken in the Caribbean. ... An English-based creole language, or English creole for short, is a creole language that was significantly influenced by the English language. ... Patois, although without a formal definition in linguistics, can be used to describe a language considered as nonstandard. ...

"The teacher who does not or is not prepared to recognize the problems of the Creole-speaking child in a British English situation can only conclude that he is stupid when he gives either an inappropriate response or no response at all. The stereotyping process leads features of Creole to be stigmatized and to develop connotations of, amongst other things, low academic ability."^[35]

As integration continued, African-Caribbeans born in Britain instinctively adopted hybrid dialects combining Caribbean and local British dialects.^[36] These dialects and accents gradually entered mainstream British vernacular, and shades of Caribbean dialects can be heard amongst Britons regardless of cultural origin. A Lancaster University study identified an emergence in certain areas of Britain of a distinctive accent which borrows heavily from Jamaican creole, lifting some words unchanged.^[37] This phenomenon, disparagingly named "Jafaican" meaning 'fake Jamaican', was famously parodied by comedian Sacha Baron Cohen through his character Ali G.^[37] This is a list of varieties of the English language. ... Lancaster University (officially the University of Lancaster) is a collegiate campus university in Lancaster, England. ... Sacha Noam Baron Cohen[1] (born October 13, 1971) is an English comedian and actor most noted for his comic characters Borat (a Kazakh reporter), Ali G (a junglist from Staines, England) and Bruno (a flamboyantly gay Austrian fashion reporter). ... Ali G delivering the Class Day speech to the Harvard class of 2004. ...

Theatre, television and mainstream cinema

Further information: British television  and British cinema

The 1970s saw the emergence of independent filmmakers such as Trinidadian-born Horace Ove, the director of Pressure, among others.^[38] London's Talawa Theatre Company was founded in the 1985 by Jamaican-born Yvonne Brewster, their first production being based on C.L.R. James's historical account of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins.^[39] Since the 1980s, the Blue Mountain Theatre's productions have offered a more earthy style of populist comedy, often bringing over Jamaican artists such as Oliver Samuels.^[40] British television broadcasting has a range of different broadcasters, broadcasting multiple channels over a variety of distribution media. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Horace Ove is a Trinidadian born British filmmaker, painter and writer and one of the leading black independent film-makers to emerge in Britain since the post-war period. ... The Talawa Theatre Company was founded in London in 1985 by Jamaican born Yvonne Brewster, Mona Hammond, Carmen Munroe and Inigo Espejel, becoming the UKs most prominent black theatre company. ... Yvonne Brewster, O.B.E. is a Stage Director, Teacher and Writer. ... Cyril Lionel Robert James (4 January 1901&#8211;19 May 1989) was a journalist, and a prominent socialist theorist and writer. ... Combatants Haiti France Commanders Toussaint LOuverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines Charles Leclerc, vicomte de Rochambeau, Napoleon Bonaparte Strength Regular army: <55,000, Volunteers: <100,000 Regular army: 60,000, 86 warships and frigates Casualties Military deaths: unknown, Civilian deaths: <100,000 Out of the 60,000 men sent betweeen Feb. ... The Black Jacobins is a historical account of the Haitian (San Domingo) Revolution of 1791-1803 written by Jamaican writer and historian C.L.R. James. ... Blue Mountain Theatre is a theatre company created in London in 1989 to provide theatre pieces for black British audiences. ... Oliver Samuels is a Jamaican comedian and actor. ...

While Guyanese actor Robert Adams became the first African-Caribbean (or black) dramatic actor to appear on British television on 11 May, 1938 (in a production of Eugene O'Neill's play The Emperor Jones), African-Caribbean entertainers were first widely popularized on British television broadcasts with the postwar resumption of BBC television in 1946 (pre-war black entertainers on the BBC - the first in the world - had primarily been African-American stars)^[41]. The profile of African-Caribbean actors on television, such as Lennie James, Judith Jacob and Diane Parish, has widened substantially since 1970s shows such as Love Thy Neighbour (Rudolph Walker) and Rising Damp (Don Warrington) when their role was often to act simply as either butt of, or foil to, racist jokes by 'white' characters. The most influential programme in moving away from this formula was the 1989-1994 Channel Four barbershop sitcom Desmond's, starring Norman Beaton and Carmen Munroe. Robert Adams (c1900-1965) was a pioneering black actor, on the stage, TV and films as well as the founder and director of the Negro Repertory Arts Theatre, one of the first professional Black theatre companies in Britain. ... Eugene Gladstone ONeill (October 16, 1888 – November 27, 1953) was a Nobel and Pulitzer Prize-winning American playwright. ... The Emperor Jones is a play by Eugene ONeill which tells the tale of an African-American man who kills a man, goes to prison, escapes to a Caribbean island, and sets himself up as its dictator and emperor. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation, usually known as the BBC (and also informally known as the Beeb or Auntie) is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of audience numbers, employing 26,000 staff in the United Kingdom alone and with a budget of more than GB£4 billion... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... Languages Predominantly American English Religions Christianity (predominantly Baptist), Islam Related ethnic groups Sub-Saharan Africans and other African groups, some with Native American groups. ... Lennie James is a British actor. ... Judith Jacob is a British actress, best known for her role as Carmel Roberts in the television soap opera EastEnders. ... Diane Parish, born 1969 in London, is an English actress who has starred in many television roles including The Bill and its spin-off M.I.T.: Murder Investigation Team, playing DC Eva Sharpe, and Babyfather. ... Love Thy Neighbour was a British sitcom that ran from 13 April 1972 to 22 January 1976, made by Thames Television for ITV. It starred Jack Smethurst, Rudolph Walker, Nina Baden-Semper and Kate Williams. ... Rudolph Walker Rudolph Walker (born September 28, 1939) is a British character actor. ... Rising Damp was a UK television sitcom produced by Yorkshire Television for ITV, first broadcast from 1974 to 1978. ... Don Warrington is an actor, originally from Trinidad and Tobago where he was born in 1952, who has been a familiar face on British television and stage for thirty years. ... Channel 4 is a television broadcaster in the United Kingdom (see British television). ... Desmonds was a British television situation comedy broadcast by Channel 4 from 1989 to 1994. ... Norman Beaton (31 October 1934 - 13 December 1994) was a Guyanan actor. ... Carmen Munroe is a British actress, born in Berbice, Guyana. ...

One of the biggest African-Caribbean names in comedy is Lenny Henry, who began his career as a stand-up comedian but whose television sketch shows, where he often caricatured Caribbean émigrés, made him popular enough to headline numerous primetime comedy shows from, for instance, Lenny Henry in 1984 to The Lenny Henry Show in 2004.^[42] The highest professional achievement by a British African-Caribbean actor to date (2006) was Marianne Jean-Baptiste's 1996 nominations for an Academy Award (Oscar), Golden Globe and British Academy Award (bafta) for her feature-film debut role in Secrets & Lies.^[43] Comedy has a classical meaning (comical theatre) and a popular one (the use of humour with an intent to provoke[[ laughter in general). ... Lenworth George Henry, CBE, better known as Lenny Henry (born 29 August 1958), is an English entertainer. ... Émigré is a French term that shows how Martin B. loves stephanie. ... Marianne Raigipcien Jean-Baptiste (born on 26 April 1967 in London, England) is an English actress. ... Academy Award The Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars, are the most prominent and most watched film awards ceremony in the world. ... The Golden Globe Award The Golden Globe Awards are American awards for motion pictures and television programs, given out each year during a formal dinner. ... BAFTA Award The British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA), is a British organisation that hosts annual awards shows for film, television, childrens film and television, and interactive media. ... Secrets & Lies is a 1996 British film which tells the story of a successful black woman who, while tracing her family history, discovers that her mother is a lower-class white woman (whose brother is a photographer married to a petty house-proud suburban woman). ...

Literature

Further information: British literature  and Caribbean literature

A shop in Electric Avenue, Brixton. In 1999 the street was hit by a nail-bomb planted by neo-nazi David Copeland. Copeland later stated that he was deliberately targeting the local African-Caribbean community. [5]

Jamaican poet James Berry was one of the first Caribbean writers to come to Britain after the 1948 British Nationality Act. He was followed by writers including Barbadians George Lamming and Edward Kamau Brathwaite, Trinidadians Samuel Selvon, CLR James, Jamaican Andrew Salkey and the Guyanese writer Wilson Harris. These writers viewed London as the centre of the English literary scene, and took advantage of the BBC Radio show Caribbean voices to gain attention and be published. By relocating to Britain, these writers also gave Caribbean literature an international readership for the first time and established Caribbean writing as an important perspective within English literature.^[44] British literature is literature from the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. ... Caribbean literature is the term generally accepted for the literature of the various territories of the Caribbean region. ... Image File history File links Africa_shopping. ... Image File history File links Africa_shopping. ... The name Electric Avenue may refer to any of the following: A song written by Eddy Grant The household appliance department at the now defunct Montgomery Ward chain of U.S. department stores A roadway in several places, including Seal Beach, California, and Brixton, U.K A dance club in... Brixton is an area of South London, England, part of the London Borough of Lambeth. ... David Copeland David John Copeland (born May 15, 1976) is a former member of the British neo-Nazi National Socialist Movement, who became known as the London nailbomber after a 13-day bombing campaign in April 1999 aimed at Londons black, Asian, and gay communities. ... The poor poet A poet is a person who writes poetry. ... James Berry was born in Jamaica and grew up in a coastal village, the fourth child in a family of six. ... George Lamming (1927&#8211; ), is a novelist and poet. ... (Lawson) Edward Kamau Brathwaite (born in Bridgetown, Barbados) on May 11, 1930 is a Barbadian writer, poet and dramatist. ... Samuel Selvon (1923&#8211;1994) was a Trinidad-born writer of mixed Indo-Trinidadian and European descent. ... Cyril Lionel Robert James (4 January 1901–19 May 1989) was a journalist, socialist theorist and writer. ... Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... Wilson Harris (Born March 4, 1921) is a Guyanese writer. ... BBC Radio is a service of the British Broadcasting Corporation which has operated in the United Kingdom under the terms of a Royal Charter since 1927. ... Caribbean literature is the term generally accepted for the literature of the various territories of the Caribbean region. ... The term English literature refers to literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England; Joseph Conrad was Polish, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, Salman Rushdie is Indian, V.S...

Some Caribbean writers also began writing about the hardships faced by settlers in post-war Britain. George Lamming addressed these issues with his 1954 novel The Emigrants, which traced the journey of migrants from Barbados as they struggled to integrate into British life.^[44] By the mid-1980s, a more radical wave of writers and poets were addressing the African-Caribbean experience in Britain, promoted by a group of new publishing houses such as Akira, Karia, Dangaroo, and Karnak House.^[44] A novel (from French nouvelle Italian novella, new) is an extended, generally fictional narrative, typically in prose. ... Extremism is a term used to describe the actions or ideologies of individuals or groups outside the perceived political center of a society; or otherwise claimed to violate common standards of ethics and reciprocity. ...

In 1984, the poet Fred D'Aguiar (born in London to Guyanese parents) won the T. S. Eliot Prize, and in 1994 won the Whitbread First Novel Award for The Longest Memory. Linton Kwesi Johnson's rhyming and socio-political commentary over dub beats made him the unofficial poet laureate of the British African-Caribbean community.