The British Raj is an informal term for the British colonial administration of most of the Indian subcontinent, or present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, also included from 1886 was Burma. It lasted from 1858, when the rule of the British East India Company was transferred to the Crown, until 1947, when British India was partitioned into two states, India and Pakistan, each of which got back full independence. Although Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) is on the Indian subcontinent, it is not counted part of the Raj, as it was ruled as a Crown Colony from London rather than by the Viceroy of India as a part of the Indian Empire. On the other hand, Burma, though not part of the subcontinent, was administered along with the Raj until the 1930s. This article is about the History of South Asia. ... Jump to: navigation, search The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River and the Hakra-Ghaggar river and their tributaries. ... Jump to: navigation, search The Vedic civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, the earliest known records of Indian history. ... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BC through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century AD. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and... During the middle ages, several Islamic regimes established empires in India. ... // The Mughal empire Main article: Mughal empire India in the 16th century presented a fragmented picture of rulers, both Muslim and Hindu, who lacked concern for their subjects and who failed to create a common body of laws or institutions. ... // Company Rule, 1757-1857 Expansion and territory It was not until the middle of the 19th century that almost all of the territory that now constitutes Bangladesh, India and Pakistan came under the rule of the British East India Company. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The History of Pakistan for times preceding 1947 overlaps with that of the history of the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and Iran. ... This article contains information that has not been verified. ... Composite satellite image of the Indian subcontinent Map of South Asia. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1886 is a common year starting on Friday (click on link to calendar) // Events January 18 - Modern field hockey is born with the formation of The Hockey Association in England. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1858 is a common year starting on Friday. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1947 was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Partition of India was the process by which British dependencies and treaty states in the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in the 1940s. ... A United Kingdom overseas territory (formerly known as a dependent territory or earlier as a crown colony) is a territory that is under the sovereignty and formal control of the United Kingdom but is not part of the United Kingdom proper (Great Britain and Northern Ireland). ...

History

The flag of British India

Image File history File links Source: [1] File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Source: [1] File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

"The First War of Indian Independence" or "The Indian Mutiny"

Main article: Indian rebellion of 1857 An engraving titled Sepoy Indian troops dividing the spoils after their mutiny against British rule gives a contemporary view of events from the British perspective. ...

On May 10, 1857, soldiers of the British Indian Army (known as "sepoys," from Urdu/Persian sipaahi or sepaahi), drawn mostly from Muslim units from Bengal, mutinied in Meerut, a cantonment eighty kilometres northeast of Delhi. The rebels marched to Delhi to offer their services to the Mughal emperor, and soon much of north and central India was plunged into a year-long insurrection against the British. Jump to: navigation, search May 10 is the 130th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (131st in leap years). ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The Indian Army in the time of the British Raj (1857–1947) See Indian Army for the post-independence (and post-partition) army of the Republic of India. ... Jump to: navigation, search , A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم) is an adherent of Islam. ... Jump to: navigation, search Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bangla (Bengali), is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Jump to: navigation, search This article deals with the city of Delhi. ... The Mughal Empire (alternative spelling Mogul, which is the origin of the word Mogul) of India was founded by Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. ...

Causes of the Mutiny

The uprising, which seriously threatened British rule in India, was undoubtedly the culmination of mounting Indian resentment toward British social and political policies over many decades. Until the rebellion, the British had succeeded in suppressing numerous riots and "tribal" wars or in accommodating them through concessions, but two factors -- one a trend and the other a single event -- triggered the violent explosion of wrath in 1857. 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

The trend that was the policy of annexation pursued by governor-general Lord Dalhousie, based mainly on his "Doctrine of Lapse", which held that princely states would be merged into company-ruled territory in case a ruler died without direct heir. This denied the native rulers the right to adopt an heir in such an event; adoption had been pervasive practise in the Hindu states hitherto, sanctioned both by religion and by secular tradition. The states annexed under this doctrine included such major kingdoms as Satara, Thanjavur,Sambhal, Jhansi, Jetpur, Udaipur, Baghat. Additionally, the company had annexed, without pretext, the rich kingdoms of Sind in 1843 and Oudh in 1856, the latter a wealthy princely state that generated huge revenue and represented a vestige of Mughal authority. This greed for land, especially in a bunch of small-town and middle-class British tradesmen, whose parvenu background was increasingly evident and galling to Indians of rank, had alienated a large section of the landed and ruling aristocracy, who were quick to take up the cause of evicting the tradesmen once the revolt was kindled. A princely state or native state was a feudal monarchy in British India ruled by a hereditary ruler, who was nominally sovereign. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... Satara is a town and district of Maharashtra state of India. ... Thanjavur, also known as Tanjore, is a city in Tamil Nadu, in southeastern India. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... Sindh (Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. ... Awadh (also known to the British as Oudh) is a region in the center of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... This article needs to be wikified. ...

The spark that lit the fire was the result of a very convincing rumour about a British blunder in using new cartridges for the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle that were greased with animal fat, rumoured to now be a combination of pig-fat and cow-fat. This was offensive to the religious beliefs of both Muslim and Hindu sepoys respectively, who refused to use the cartridges and, under provocation, finally mutinied against their British officers.

Course of the Mutiny

The rebellion soon engulfed much of North India, including Oudh and various areas that had lately passed from the control of Maratha princes to the company. The unprepared British were terrified, and even paralysed, without replacements for the casualties. The civil war inflicted havoc on both Indians and British as each vented their fury on the other; each community suffered humiliation and triumph in battle as well, although the final outcome was victory for the British. Isolated mutinies also occurred at military posts in the centre of the subcontinent. The last major sepoy rebels surrendered on June 21, 1858, at Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh), one of the principal centres of the revolt. A final battle was fought at Sirwa Pass on May 21, 1859, and the defeated rebels fled into Nepal. Awadh (also known to the British as Oudh) is a region in the center of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Jump to: navigation, search Maratha is a kshatriya (warrior) caste of Marathi language speaking people primarily residing in the plains and hills of Indias western state of Maharashtra. ... Teli-ka-Mandir Gwalior is a city in Madhya Pradesh, India. ... Madhya Pradesh (मध्य प्रदेश) is a state in central India. ... Jump to: navigation, search May 21 is the 141st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (142nd in leap years). ... 1859 is a common year starting on Saturday. ...

Although the rebellious sepoys fought with great bravery, the British gained the victory due to superior leadership and organization, and the fact that the majority of the sepoys remained loyal to the British. Most areas ruled by native princes remained largely untouched by the mutiny; in particular, Rajasthan and the maratha states of central India, with the exception of Gwalior, remained calm. Punjab was another major area loyal to the British throughout the mutiny, and the main source of supplies and fighting men for them. Significantly, the rebellion also did not spread to other parts of the subcontinent, most notably the south, which was a bastion of British power. Rajasthan (राजस्थान) is the geographically largest state in northwestern India. ... Jump to: navigation, search Maratha is a kshatriya (warrior) caste of Marathi language speaking people primarily residing in the plains and hills of Indias western state of Maharashtra. ... Teli-ka-Mandir Gwalior is a city in Madhya Pradesh, India. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 This article details the geographical region of Punjab. ...

There has been much subsequent debate about the correct labelling of this event in the history of the Raj. Although it has gone down in the imperial annals as "the Indian Mutiny" or the Sepoy Rebellion, many modern-day Indians, and others besides, feel that this is an inappropriate term for what they see as the first serious independence movement in India. The spontaneous and widespread rebellion later fired the imagination of the nationalists who would debate the most effective method of protest against British rule. For them, the rebellion represented the first Indian attempt at gaining independence. This interpretation, however, is open to serious question.

Post-rebellion developments

The civil war was a major turning point in the history of modern India. In May 1858, the British exiled Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II (r. 1837-1857) to Burma, thus formally liquidating the Mughal Empire. At the same time, they abolished the British East India Company and replaced it with direct rule under the British Crown. In proclaiming the new direct-rule policy to "the Princes, Chiefs, and Peoples of India," Queen Victoria (who was given the title Empress of India in 1877) promised equal treatment under British law, but Indian mistrust of British rule had become a legacy of the 1857 rebellion. Bahadur Shah II (1775-1862) aka Bahadur Shah Zafar (Zafar was his nom de plume, or takhallus, as an Urdu poet) was the last of the Mughal emperors in India. ... Jump to: navigation, search The Mughal Empire (Urdu: مغل باد شاہ, Mughal Baadshah, alternative spelling Mogul, which is the origin of the word Mogul) of the Indian Subcontinent, founded by the Mongol leader Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... Jump to: navigation, search Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria) (24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837, and Empress of India from 1 January 1877 until her death. ... Signature of King Edward VIII The R and I after his name indicate king and emperor in Latin (Rex and Imperator, respectively). ... English law is the law of England and Wales, rather than Scotland and Northern Ireland. ...

Many existing economic and revenue policies remained virtually unchanged in the post-1857 period, but several administrative modifications were introduced, beginning with the creation in London of a cabinet post, the Secretary of State for India. The governor-general (called viceroy when acting as representative to the nominally sovereign "princely states" or "native states"), headquartered in Calcutta, ran the administration in India, assisted by executive and legislative councils. Beneath the governor-general were the provincial governors, who held power over the district officials, who formed the lower rungs of the Indian Civil Service. For decades the Indian Civil Service was the exclusive preserve of the British-born, as were the superior ranks in such other professions as law and medicine. The British administrators were imbued with a sense of duty in ruling India and were rewarded with good salaries, high status, and opportunities for promotion. Not until the 1910s did the British reluctantly permit a few Indians into their cadre as the number of English-educated Indians rose steadily. Jump to: navigation, search The clock tower of the Palace of Westminster, which contains Big Ben London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England. ... Jump to: navigation, search In the Politics of the United Kingdom, the Cabinet is a formal body comprised of government officials chosen by the Prime Minister. ... The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when India was brought under direct British rule (British Raj). ... The Governor-General of India (or Governor-General and Viceroy of India) was the head of the British administration in India. ... A viceroy is somebody who governs a country or province as a substitute for the monarch. ... A princely state or native state was a feudal monarchy in British India ruled by a hereditary ruler, who was nominally sovereign. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... ...

The Viceroy of India announced in 1858 that the government would honour former treaties with princely states and renounced the "doctrine of lapse," whereby the East India Company had annexed territories of rulers who died without male heirs. About 40 percent of Indian territory and between 20 and 25 percent of the population remained under the control of 562 princes notable for their religious (Islamic, Hindu, Sikh and other) and ethnic diversity. Their propensity for pomp and ceremony became proverbial, while their domains, varying in size and wealth, lagged behind sociopolitical transformations that took place elsewhere in British-controlled India. The Governor-General of India (or Governor-General and Viceroy of India) was the head of the British administration in India. ... The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and 1856. ... Jump to: navigation, search Islam ▶(?) (Arabic: الإسلام al-islām) the submission to God is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions, the worlds second-largest religion, and said by some to be the fastest growing religion in the world. ... Jump to: navigation, search It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Hindu people. ... A Sikh man wearing a turban A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a religious faith originating in the Punjab. ...

A more thorough reorganization was effected in the constitution of army and government finances. Shocked by the extent of solidarity among Indian soldiers during the rebellion, the government separated the army into the three presidencies.

British attitudes toward Indians shifted from relative openness to insularity and xenophobia, even against those with comparable background and achievement as well as loyalty. British families and their servants lived in cantonments at a distance from Indian settlements. Private clubs where the British gathered for social interaction became symbols of exclusivity and snobbery that refused to disappear decades after the British had left India. In 1883 the government of India attempted to remove race barriers in criminal jurisdictions by introducing a bill empowering Indian judges to adjudicate offences committed by Europeans. Public protests and editorials in the British press, however, forced the viceroy George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon, (who served from 1880 to 1884), to capitulate and modify the bill drastically. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia learned a valuable political lesson from this "white mutiny": the effectiveness of well-orchestrated agitation through demonstrations in the streets and publicity in the media when seeking redress for real and imagined grievances. Jump to: navigation, search Xenophobia denotes a phobic attitude toward strangers or of the unknown and comes from the Greek words ξένος (xenos), meaning foreigner, stranger, and φόβος (phobos), meaning fear. ... World map showing Europe (geographically) When considered a continent, Europe is the worlds second-smallest continent in terms of area, with an area of 10,600,000 km² (4,140,625 square miles), making it larger than Australia only. ... George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon (24 October 1827 - 9 July 1909) was a British politician who served in every Liberal cabinet from 1861 until his death forty-eight years later. ... Jump to: navigation, search Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bangla (Bengali), is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ...

Post-1857 India also experienced a period of unprecedented calamity when the region was swept by a series of frequent and devastating famines, among the most catastrophic on record. Approximately 25 major famines spread through states such as Tamil Nadu in South India, Bihar in the north, and Bengal in the east in the latter half of the 19th century, killing between 30-40 million Indians. The famines were a product both of uneven rainfall and British economic and administrative policies, which since 1857 had led to the seizure and conversion of local farmland to foreign-owned plantations, restrictions on internal trade, heavy taxation of Indian citizens to support unsuccessful British expeditions in Afghanistan (see [Anglo-Afghan War]), inflationary measures that increased the price of food, and substantial exports of staple crops from India to Britain. Some British citizens such as William Digby agitated for policy reforms and famine relief, but Lord Lytton, son of the poet Edward Bulwer-Lytton and the governing British viceroy in India, opposed such changes in the belief that they would stimulate shirking by Indian workers. The famines continued until independence in 1948, with the Bengal Famine of 1943-44 -- among the most devastating -- killing 3-4 million Indians during World War II. Jump to: navigation, search A famine is a phenomenon in which a large percentage of the population of a region or country are undernourished that death by starvation becomes increasingly common. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... Jump to: navigation, search Bihar ( बिहार in Devanagri) is a state of the Indian union situated in the eastern part of the country. ... Jump to: navigation, search Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bangla (Bengali), is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ... British author and humanitarian. ... Edward George Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton (May 25, 1803 - January 18, 1873) was an English novelist, playwright, and politician. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1948 is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... Bengal famine of 1943 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Jump to: navigation, search World War II was a truly global conflict with many facets: immense human suffering, fierce indoctrinations, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons such as the atom bomb World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a mid-20th-century conflict that...

Beginnings of self-government

The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act of 1892. Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Government of India Act of 1909 -- also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Gilbert Elliot, fourth earl of Minto, was viceroy) -- gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures, known as legislative councils. Indians had previously been appointed to legislative councils, but after the reforms some were elected to them. At the centre, the majority of council members continued to be government-appointed officials, and the viceroy was in no way responsible to the legislature. At the provincial level, the elected members, together with unofficial appointees, outnumbered the appointed officials, but responsibility of the governor to the legislature was not contemplated. Morley made it clear in introducing the legislation to the British Parliament that parliamentary self-government was not the goal of the British government. Measures announced in 1909 to increase the participation of Indians in their country’s government. ... John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn (1838 - 1923), known for the first part of his life simply as John Morley, was an English statesman and writer. ... Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynynmond, 4th Earl of Minto (June 9, 1845 - March 1, 1914) was an English politician, Governor General of Canada, and Viceroy of India. ... The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative institution in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories (it alone has parliamentary sovereignty). ...

The Morley-Minto Reforms were a milestone. Step by step, the elective principle was introduced for membership in Indian legislative councils. The "electorate" was limited, however, to a small group of upper-class Indians. These elected members increasingly became an "opposition" to the "official government." Communal electorates were later extended to other communities and made a political factor of the Indian tendency toward group identification through religion. The practice created certain vital questions for all concerned. The intentions of the British were questioned. How humanitarian was their concern for the minorities? Were separate electorates a manifestation of "divide and rule"?

For Muslims it was important both to gain a place in all-India politics and to retain their Muslim identity, objectives that required varying responses according to circumstances, as the example of Muhammed Ali Jinnah illustrates. Jinnah, who was born in 1876, studied law in England and began his career as an enthusiastic liberal in Congress on returning to India. In 1913 he joined the Muslim League, which had been shocked by the 1911 annulment of the partition of Bengal into cooperating with Congress to make demands on the British. Jinnah continued his membership in Congress until 1919. During this dual membership period, he was described by a leading Congress spokesperson as the "ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity." Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah of Pakistan Mohammad Ali Jinnah (referred to in Pakistan as Quaid-e-Azam, or Great Leader, which is a legally defined title) (December 25, 1876 - September 11, 1948) was an Indian Muslim nationalist, who led the movement demanding a separate homeland for Muslims in... Muhammed Ali Jinnah, the Great Leader of the Muslim League The All India Muslim League was a political party in British India and was the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state from British India on the Indian subcontinent. ...

After World War I

India's important contributions to the efforts of the British Empire in World War I stimulated further demands by Indians and further response from the British. The Congress Party and the Muslim League met in joint session in December 1916. Under the leadership of Jinnah and Pandit Motilal Nehru (father of Jawalharlal Nehru), unity was preached and a proposal for constitutional reform was made that included the concept of separate electorates. The resulting Congress-Muslim League Pact (often referred to as the Lucknow Pact) was a sincere effort to compromise. Congress accepted the separate electorates demanded by the Muslim League, and the Muslim League joined with Congress in demanding self-government. The pact was expected to lead to permanent and constitutional united action. Jump to: navigation, search The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps The British Empire was the worlds first global power, a product of the European Age of Exploration that began with the global maritime empires of Portugal and Spain... Jump to: navigation, search World War I was primarily a European conflict with many facets: immense human sacrifice, stalemate trench warfare, and the use of new, devastating weapons - tanks, aircraft, machineguns, and poison gas. ... The Indian National Congress (also known as the Congress Party) is the largest subscription-based organisation in the world. ... Muhammed Ali Jinnah, the Great Leader of the Muslim League The All India Muslim League was a political party in British India and was the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state from British India on the Indian subcontinent. ... Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah of Pakistan Mohammad Ali Jinnah (referred to in Pakistan as Quaid-e-Azam, or Great Leader, which is a legally defined title) (December 25, 1876 - September 11, 1948) was an Indian Muslim nationalist, who led the movement demanding a separate homeland for Muslims in... Jump to: navigation, search Motilal Nehru (May 6, 1861 - February 6, 1931) was an early leader of the Indian National Congress and Indian Nationalism. ... Jawaharlal Nehru (जवाहरलाल नेहरू) (November 14, 1889 - May 27, 1964), also called Pandit (Teacher) Nehru, was the leader of the (moderately) socialist wing of the Indian National Congress during and after Indias struggle for independence from the British Empire. ...

In August 1917, the British government formally announced a policy of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." Constitutional reforms were embodied in the Government of India Act of 1919, also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Edwin Samuel Montagu was Britain's Secretary of State for India; the Viscount Chelmsford was viceroy). These reforms represented the maximum concessions the British were prepared to make at that time. The franchise was extended, and increased authority was given to central and provincial legislative councils, but the viceroy remained responsible only to London. Jump to: navigation, search 1917 was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. ... The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were reforms introduced by the British Government in India to introduce self-governing institutions gradually to India. ... Edwin Samuel Montagu (1879-1924) was a British Liberal polician. ... The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when India was brought under direct British rule (British Raj). ... Frederic John Napier Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford (12 August 1868 - 1 April 1933) was a British statesman who served as Viceroy of India from 1916 to 1921. ...

The changes at the provincial level were significant, as the provincial legislative councils contained a considerable majority of elected members. In a system called "dyarchy," based on an approach developed by Lionel Curtis the nation-building departments of government -- agriculture, education, public works, and the like -- were placed under ministers who were individually responsible to the legislature. The departments that made up the "steel frame" of British rule -- finance, revenue, and home affairs -- were retained by executive councillors who were often (but not always) British, and who were responsible to the governor. A dyarchy usually consists of 2 leaders. ... Lionel Curtis is the author of The Commonwealth of Nations (1916) and Civitas Dei: The Commonwealth of God (1938), arguing that the United States must rejoin the British commonwealth and that the commonwealth must evolve into a world government. ...

The 1919 reforms did not satisfy political demands in India. The British repressed opposition, and restrictions on the press and on movement were reenacted. An apparently unwitting example of violation of rules against the gathering of people led to the massacre at Jalianwala Bagh in Amritsar in April 1919. This tragedy galvanized such political leaders as Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) and Mohandas Karamchandas Gandhi (1869-1948) and the masses who followed them to press for further action. Image:Kyle massacre. ... Amritsar (Punjabi: ਅੰਮ੍ਰਿਤਸਰ, Hindi: अमृतसर), meaning Pool of the Nectar of Immortality, is a city in Punjab, India. ... Jawaharlal Nehru (जवाहरलाल नेहरू, Javāharlāl Nehrū) (November 14, 1889 – May 27, 1964), also called Pandit (Teacher) Nehru, was the leader of the socialist wing of the Indian National Congress during and after Indias struggle for independence from the British Empire. ...

The Allies' post-World War I peace settlement with Turkey provided an additional stimulus to the grievances of the Muslims, who feared that one goal of the Allies was to end the caliphate of the Ottoman sultan. After the end of the Mughal Empire, the Ottoman caliph had become the symbol of Islamic authority and unity to Indian Sunni Muslims. A pan-Islamic movement, known as the Khilafat Movement, spread in India. It was a mass repudiation of Muslim loyalty to British rule and thus legitimated Muslim participation in the Indian nationalist movement. The leaders of the Khilafat Movement used Islamic symbols to unite the diverse but assertive Muslim community on an all-India basis and bargain with both Congress leaders and the British for recognition of minority rights and political concessions. When spelt with a capital A, Allies usually denotes the countries that fought together against the Central Powers in World War I and against the Axis Powers in World War II. For more information, see the related articles: Allies of World War I and Allies of World War II. Other... An Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or Khalīfah, Caliph (  listen?) is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. ... Jump to: navigation, search Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (the Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital Bursa (1335 - 1365), Edirne (1365-1453), Ä°stanbul (Constantinople) (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah of the Osmanli... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Jump to: navigation, search The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was a movement amongst the Muslims of British India (the largest single Muslim community in one geo-political entity at the time) to ensure that the British, victors of World War I, kept a promise made at the Versailles. ...

Muslim leaders from the Deoband and Aligarh movements joined Gandhi in mobilizing the masses for the 1920 and 1921 demonstrations of civil disobedience and non-cooperation in response to the massacre at Amritsar. At the same time, Gandhi endorsed the Khilafat Movement, thereby placing many Hindus behind what had been solely a Muslim demand. The Darul Uloom, an Islamic madrassa or seminary, located at Deoband, a town in Uttar Pradesh, India is self-described as a cornerstone of Islamic sciences. ... Victoria gate, a prominent building at the university Aligarh Muslim University is a university located in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh. ...

Despite impressive achievements, however, the Khilafat Movement failed. Turkey rejected the caliphate and became a secular state. Furthermore, the religious, mass-based aspects of the movement alienated such Western-oriented constitutional politicians as Jinnah, who resigned from Congress. Other Muslims also were uncomfortable with Gandhi's leadership. The British historian Sir Percival Spear wrote that "a mass appeal in his Gandhi's hands could not be other than a Hindu one. He could transcend caste but not community. The Hindu devices he used went sour in the mouths of Muslims". In the final analysis, the movement failed to lay a lasting foundation of Indian unity and served only to aggravate Hindu-Muslim differences among masses that were being politicized. Indeed, as India moved closer to the self-government implied in the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, rivalry over what might be called the spoils of independence sharpened the differences between the communities. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (October 2, 1869 – January 30, 1948) (Devanagari: मोहनदास करमचन्द गांधी, Gujarati મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી), called Mahatma Gandhi, was the charismatic leader who brought the cause of Indias independence from British colonial rule to world attention. ... Jump to: navigation, search A caste system is a rigid system of social stratification, which divides members of a society into different castes and sub-castes or Varnas and jatis. ... Jump to: navigation, search It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Hindu people. ...

Further reform

The political picture in India was not at all clear when the mandated decennial review of the Government of India Act of 1919 became due in 1929. Prospects of further constitutional reforms spurred greater agitation and a frenzy of demands from different groups (See Nehru Report) . The Simon Commission headed by Sir John Simon, who recommended further constitutional change, but it was not until 1935 that a new Government of India Act was passed. The Indian Round Table Conferences 1931-1933 were held in London, at which a wide variety of interests from India were represented. The major disagreement concerned the continuation of separate electorates, which Gandhi and Congress strongly opposed. As a result, the decision was forced on the British government. Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald issued his "communal award," which continued the system of separate electorates at both the central and the provincial level. The Nehru Report (1928) was a memorandum outlining a proposed new Dominion (see dominion status) constitution for India. ... The Simon Commission is an informal term for the Indian Statutory Commission // British Commitments to Self-government The two most important official statements of British policy concerning India were Queen Victoria’s Royal Proclamation, of 1858, when the crown took control of the East India Company’s Indian territories, and... The Right Honourable John Allsebrook Simon, 1st Viscount Simon (1873-1954) was a British politician and statesman. ... // British Commitments to Self-government And so the two sides returned to what from a British perspective was a mundane process of political bargaining, and to what in the Indian view was a freedom struggle that must endure until swaraj arrived indeed. ... The Right Honourable James Ramsay MacDonald (12 October 1866–9 November 1937), British politician, was twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. ...

The principal result of the act was "provincial autonomy." The dyarchical system was discontinued, and all subjects were placed under ministers who were individually and collectively responsible to the former legislative councils, which were renamed legislative assemblies. (In a few provinces, including Bengal, a bicameral system was established; the upper house continued to be called a legislative council.) Almost all assembly members were elected, with the exception of some special and otherwise unrepresented groups. After the elections, provincial chief ministers and cabinets took office, although the governors had limited "emergency powers." Sindh was separated from Bombay and became a province. The 1919 reforms had earlier been introduced in the North-West Frontier Province. Balochistan, however, retained special status; it had no legislature and was governed by an "agent general to the governor general." At the centre, the act essentially provided for the establishment of dyarchy, but it also provided for a federal system that included the princes. The princes refused to join a system that might force them to accept decisions made by elected politicians. Thus, the full provisions of the 1935 act did not come into force at the centre. Jump to: navigation, search Sindh (Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis and Muhajirs and various other groups. ... This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) is geographically the smallest of the four provinces of Pakistan. ... Jump to: navigation, search This article needs copyediting (checking for proper English spelling, grammar, usage, etc. ...

World War II and the End of the Raj

At the start of World War II an agreement was reached between the British government and the Indian independence movement whereby India would be granted independence once victory was gained over the Axis Powers, in exchange for India’s full co-operation in the war. Millions of Indians joined the military; it was the largest all-volunteer army in the history of the world. Jump to: navigation, search World War II was a truly global conflict with many facets: immense human suffering, fierce indoctrinations, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons such as the atom bomb World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a mid-20th-century conflict that... Jump to: navigation, search The Indian Independence Movement was a series of revolutions empowered by the people of India put forth to battle the British Empire for complete political independence, beginning with the Rebellion of 1857, reaching its climax with Mahatma Gandhis Quit India Movement (1942-1945), and Subhas... Jump to: navigation, search This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

At midnight on August 14, 1947 Pakistan (then also including modern Bangladesh) was granted independence. India was granted independence the following day. Jump to: navigation, search August 14 is the 226th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (227th in leap years), with 139 days remaining. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1947 was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ...

Most people would give these dates as the end of the British Raj. However, some people argue that it continued until 1950 in India and 1956 in Pakistan, when those countries adopted republican constitutions (India a secular one and Pakistan a theocratic one) and the British monarch ceased to be their head of state. Jump to: navigation, search 1950 was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... Jump to: navigation, search 1956 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Republicanism is the view that a republic is the best form of government. ... Jump to: navigation, search // Definition Secularism means: in philosophy, the belief that life can be best lived by applying ethics, and the universe best understood, by processes of reasoning, without reference to a god or gods or other supernatural concepts. ... The British monarch or Sovereign is the monarch and head of state of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, and is the source of all executive, judicial and (as the Queen-in-Parliament) legislative power. ...

Provinces

At the time of independence, British India consisted of the following provinces:

• Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri
• Assam
• Baluchistan
• Bengal
• Bihar
• Bombay Province - Bombay
• Central Provinces and Berar
• Delhi Province - Delhi
• Madras Province - Madras
• North-West Frontier Province
• Panth-Piploda
• Orissa
• Punjab
• Sindh
• United Provinces (Agra and Oudh)

There were also several hundred Princely States, under British protection but ruled by native rulers. Among the most notable of these were Jaipur, Hyderabad, Mysore, and Jammu and Kashmir. Ajmer-Merwara (also Ajmere-Merwara) is a former province of British India. ... Assam (অসম) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur. ... Baluchistan (or Balochistan), also known as Greater Baluchistan is an arid region of south Asia, presently split between Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. ... Jump to: navigation, search Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bangla (Bengali), is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ... Jump to: navigation, search Bihar ( बिहार in Devanagri) is a state of the Indian union situated in the eastern part of the country. ... Bombay Presidency was a former province of British India. ... This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... A British Raj province comprising British conquests from the Mughals and Marathas in central India. ... Jump to: navigation, search This article deals with the city of Delhi. ... Madras Presidency, also known as Madras Province and known officially as Presidency of Fort St. ... Madras refers to: the Indian city of Chennai, formerly known as Madras, the former Indian state, now known as Tamil Nadu (Plural of Madra): Ancient people of Iranian affinites, who lived in northwest Panjab in the Uttarapatha division of ancient India. ... North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) is geographically the smallest of the four provinces of Pakistan. ... Orissa (2001 provisional pop. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 This article details the geographical region of Punjab. ... Jump to: navigation, search Sindh (Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis and Muhajirs and various other groups. ... United Provinces, 1903 A province of the British Raj, which corresponds to modern Uttar Pradesh state of India. ... Taj Mahal Agra is an ancient city on the Yamuna River in India, within the state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Awadh (also known to the British as Oudh) is a region in the center of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Hundreds of Princely states in British India existed prior to the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, ruled by semi-independent potentates. ... Old city of Jaipur, India Jaipur (जयपुर), also popularly known as the Pink City, historically sometimes rendered as Jeypore, is the capital of Rajasthan state, India. ... Hyderabad and Berar, 1903 Hyderābād was an autonomous princely state of south-central India from 1724 until 1948, ruled by a hereditary Nizam, and an Indian state from 1948 to 1956. ... The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded about 1400 AD by the Wodeyar dynasty, who ruled the state until the independence of India in 1947, when the kingdom was merged with the Union of India. ... Jump to: navigation, search Jammu and Kashmir is the northern-most state of the Republic of India, with Srinagar as its summer capital and Jammu as its winter capital. ...

Related articles

• British Empire
• Imperialism in Asia
• Secretary of State for India
• India Office
• Governor-General of India
• Indian Civil Service
• Government of India Act
• Partition of India
• History of Bangladesh
• History of India
• History of Pakistan
• Anglo-Indian cuisine

Jump to: navigation, search The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps The British Empire was the worlds first global power, a product of the European Age of Exploration that began with the global maritime empires of Portugal and Spain... Jump to: navigation, search Large areas of Asia, as well as Africa and other areas of the world, were subjected to imperial control by European nations, China, and Japan. ... The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when India was brought under direct British rule (British Raj). ... India Office was the office of the British Secretary of State for India. ... The Governor-General of India (or Governor-General and Viceroy of India) was the head of the British administration in India. ... ... The term Government of India Act refers to several Acts passed by the British Parliament to regulate the government of British India, in particular: Government of India Act 1833 (also known as the Charter Act 1833), which created a Governor-General of India Government of India Act 1858, under which... The Partition of India was the process by which British dependencies and treaty states in the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in the 1940s. ... This article contains information that has not been verified. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The History of Pakistan for times preceding 1947 overlaps with that of the history of the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and Iran. ... During the British Raj in India, many local Indian dishes were adapted (often in quite dramatic ways) by the British and many of these dishes became fashionable in England at the time. ...

References

• This article incorporates public domain text from the Library of Congress Country Studies. - India, Pakistan
• Bibliography