Maralinga Atomic Test Site
Map showing nuclear test sites in Australia
Type	Nuclear test range
Location	30°10′S, 131°37′E in Australia
Operator	United Kingdom
Status	Inactive
In use	1955 – 1963
Remediation status	Completed in 2000
Testing
Subcritical tests	700
Nuclear tests	7

The British nuclear tests at Maralinga were performed at the Maralinga site, part of the Woomera Prohibited Area, on the Nullarbor Plain in South Australia. The Maralinga site was a joint test facility between the British and Australian governments. It is located at 30°10′S, 131°37′E. Image File history File links AusNucTestSites. ... Preparation for an underground nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site in the 1980s. ... Year 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1963 (MCMLXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Generally, remediation means giving a remedy. ... Year 2000 (MM) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full 2000 Gregorian calendar). ... This article is about nuclear technology. ... An induced nuclear fission event. ... Maralinga is a small town in the desert of South Australia, famous for nuclear tests that took place there in the 1950s. ... Woomera Prohibited Area is a weapons testing range located in central South Australia. ... For the roadhouse along the Eyre Highway, see Nullarbor, South Australia NASA - Visible Earth, Nullarbor. ... Capital Adelaide Government Constitutional monarchy Governor Marjorie Jackson-Nelson Premier Mike Rann (ALP) Federal representation  - House seats 11  - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05)  - Product ($m)  $59,819 (5th)  - Product per capita  $38,838/person (7th) Population (End of September 2006)  - Population  1,558,200 (5th)  - Density  1. ...

After successfully testing nuclear weapons at Montebello Islands and Emu Field, the British government requested a permanent test site, and Maralinga was subsequently selected for this purpose. A total of seven nuclear tests were performed, with approximate yields ranging from 1 to 27 kilotons. The site was also used for hundreds of minor trials, many of which were intended to investigate the effects of fire or non-nuclear explosions on atomic weapons. The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... Map of the Montebellos and Barrow Island The mushroom cloud resulting from the Operation Hurricane detonation The Montebello Islands are an archipelago of around 174 small islands (about 35 of which are named) located 128 km/80 miles off the Pilbara coast of North West Australia. ... Emu Field was located in the desert of South Australia, at approximately 132E 29S. Variously known as Emu Field, Emu Junction or Emu, it was the site of the Operation Totem series of nuclear tests, conducted by the British government in 1953. ... Preparation for an underground nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site in the 1980s. ... // The explosive yield of a nuclear weapon is the amount of energy discharged when the weapon is detonated, expressed usually in the equivalent mass of trinitrotoluene (TNT), either in kilotons (thousands of tons of TNT) or megatons (million of tons of TNT), but sometimes also in terajoules (1 kiloton of...

Despite an initial cleanup attempt in 1967, the site was contaminated with radioactive materials. A later cleanup attempt, completed in 2000, was more successful, and work is now underway to return the site to the Maralinga Tjarutja, the traditional Aboriginal owners. Debate continues over the safety of the site and the long-term health effects on former personnel. Radioactive waste are waste types containing radioactive chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose. ... Year 2000 (MM) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full 2000 Gregorian calendar). ... The Maralinga Tjarutja are the Indigenous Australian people who traditionally inhabit the remote western areas of South Australia. ... Languages Several hundred indigenous Australian languages (many extinct or nearly so), Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, Torres Strait Creole, Kriol Religions Primarily Christian, with minorities of other religions including various forms of Traditional belief systems based around the Dreamtime Related ethnic groups see List of Indigenous Australian group names Indigenous...

Historical context

On October 3, 1952 the United Kingdom tested its first atomic weapon, named "Hurricane", at the Montebello Islands off the coast of Western Australia.^[1] is the 276th day of the year (277th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The explosion cloud resulting from the Operation Hurricane detonation Operation Hurricane was the test of the first British atomic bomb. ... Map of the Montebellos and Barrow Island The mushroom cloud resulting from the Operation Hurricane detonation The Montebello Islands are an archipelago of around 174 small islands (about 35 of which are named) located 128 km/80 miles off the Pilbara coast of North West Australia. ... Slogan or Nickname: Wildflower State or the Golden State Other Australian states and territories Capital Perth Government Constitutional monarchy Governor Ken Michael Premier Alan Carpenter (ALP) Federal representation  - House seats 15  - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05)  - Product ($m)  $100,900 (4th)  - Product per capita  $50,355/person...

A year later the first atomic test on the Australian mainland was Totem 1 at Emu Field on the 15 October 1953 (10 kilotons). Totem 2 (8 kilotons) followed on the 27 October.^[1] is the 288th day of the year (289th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1953 (MCMLIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 300th day of the year (301st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The British government formally requested a permanent test facility on 30 October 1953. Due to concerns about fallout from the previous tests at Emu Field, the recently-surveyed Maralinga site was selected for this purpose.^[2] The new site was announced in May 1955.^[1][3] It was developed as a joint, co-funded facility between the British and Australian governments.^[4] is the 303rd day of the year (304th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Prior to selection, the Maralinga site was inhabited by the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara Aboriginal peoples, for whom it had a "great spiritual significance".^[5] Many were relocated to a new settlement at Yulata, and attempts were made to curtail access to the Maralinga site. These were often unsuccessful. One author suggests that the resettlement and denial of access to their homelands "contributed significantly to the social disintegration which characterises the community to this day. Petrol sniffing, juvenile crime, alcoholism and chronic friction between residents and the South Australian police have become facts of life."^[5] Image:Some aboriginal communities in the northern territory australia. ... Yankunytjatjara (also Yankuntatjara, Jangkundjara, Kulpantja) is an Australian Aboriginal language. ... Languages Several hundred indigenous Australian languages (many extinct or nearly so), Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, Torres Strait Creole, Kriol Religions Primarily Christian, with minorities of other religions including various forms of Traditional belief systems based around the Dreamtime Related ethnic groups see List of Indigenous Australian group names Indigenous...

Major tests

They said, "Count down 90 seconds," you'll turn your back to the tower, "cover your eyes, shut your eyes, cover your hands," and they count down 10, 9, 8... Vivid flash and even with your eyes shut and you're looking through your hands - you can see an x-ray of your hands - heat hit the back of your neck and, you know, blasts went through.

– Peter Webb, present at One Tree and Marcoo^[6]

Two major test series were conducted at the Maralinga site: Operation Buffalo and Operation Antler.

Operation Buffalo commenced on September 27, 1956. The operation consisted of the testing of four nuclear devices, codenamed One Tree, Marcoo, Kite and Breakaway respectively.^[7] One Tree (12.9 kilotons) and Breakaway (10.8 kilotons) were exploded from towers, Marcoo (1.4 kilotons) was exploded at ground level, and Kite (2.9 kilotons) was released by a Royal Air Force Vickers Valiant bomber from a height of 35,000 feet.^{[7][8][9][10]} This was the first launching of a British atomic weapon from an aircraft. is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1956 (MCMLVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... “RAF” redirects here. ... The Vickers Valiant was a British four-jet bomber, once part of the RAFs V bomber force. ...

The fallout from these tests was measured using sticky paper, air sampling devices, and water sampled from rainfall and reservoirs.^[11] The radioactive cloud from Buffalo 1 (One Tree) reached a height of 37,500ft, exceeding the predicted 27,900ft, and radioactivity was detected in South Australia, Northern Territory, New South Wales, and Queensland. All four Buffalo tests were criticised by the 1985 Royal Commission, which concluded that they were fired under inappropriate conditions.^[12]

In 2001, Dr Roff of Dundee University uncovered evidence that troops had been ordered to run, walk and crawl across areas contaminated by the Buffalo tests;^[13] a fact that the British government later admitted.^[14] Dr Roff stated that "it puts the lie to the British government's claim that they never used humans for guinea pig-type experiments in nuclear weapons trials in Australia."^[15]

Operation Antler followed in 1957. Antler was designed to test components for thermonuclear weapons, with particular emphasis on triggering mechanisms.^[16] Three tests began in September, codenamed Tadje, Biak and Taranaki. The first two tests were conducted from towers, the last was suspended from balloons.^[7] Yields from the weapons were 0.93 kilotons, 5.67 kilotons and 26.6 kilotons respectively.^[8] Year 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar). ... The first nuclear weapons, though large, cumbersome and inefficient, provided the basic design building blocks of all future weapons. ...

The Tadje test used Cobalt pellets as a 'tracer' for determining yield;^[17][12] later rumours developed that Britain had been developing a cobalt bomb.^[17] The Royal Commission found that personnel handling these pellets were later exposed to the active Cobalt 60.^[12] For other uses, see Cobalt (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Although the Antler series were better planned and organised than earlier series, intermediate fallout from the Taranaki test exceeded predictions.^[12]

Minor tests

In addition to the major tests, a large number of minor trials were also carried out, from June 1955 and extended through to May 1963.^[1] Although the major tests had been carried out with some publicity, the minor tests were carried out in absolute secrecy.^[19] They were to leave the most dangerous legacy at Maralinga.^[20] Year 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1963 (MCMLXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The four series of minor trials were codenamed Kittens, Tims, Rats and Vixen.^[19] In all, these trials included up to 700 tests, with tests involving experiments with plutonium, uranium, and beryllium.^[21] General Name, Symbol, Number plutonium, Pu, 94 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight (244) g·mol−1 Electron configuration [Rn] 5f6 7s2 Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2 Physical properties Phase solid Density (near r. ... General Name, symbol, number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, period, block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Standard atomic weight 238. ... General Name, symbol, number beryllium, Be, 4 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 2, s Appearance white-gray metallic Standard atomic weight 9. ...

Operation Kittens involved 99 trials, performed at both Maralinga and Emu Field in 1953-1961.^[18] The tests were used in the development of neutron initiators, involving use of polonium-210 and uranium, and generated "relatively large amounts of radioactive contamination."^[18] General Name, Symbol, Number polonium, Po, 84 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 16, 6, p Appearance silvery Standard atomic weight (209) g·mol−1 Electron configuration [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4 Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6 Physical properties Phase solid Density (near r. ... General Name, symbol, number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, period, block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Standard atomic weight 238. ...

Operation Tims took place in 1955-1963, and involved 321 trials of uranium and beryllium tampers, as well as studies of plutonium compression.^[18] General Name, symbol, number beryllium, Be, 4 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 2, s Appearance white-gray metallic Standard atomic weight 9. ... General Name, Symbol, Number plutonium, Pu, 94 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight (244) g·mol−1 Electron configuration [Rn] 5f6 7s2 Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2 Physical properties Phase solid Density (near r. ...

Operation Rats occurred investigated explosive dispersal of uranium.^[18] 125 trials took place between 1956 and 1960.

Operation Vixen was formulated to investigate what would happen to a nuclear device which burnt or was subject to a non nuclear explosion.^[19] 31 Vixen A trials between 1959 and 1961 investigated the effects of an accidental fire on a nuclear weapon, and involved a total of about 1kg of plutonium.^[22] Twelve Vixen B trials, between 1960 and 1963, attempted to discover the effects of high explosives detonating a nuclear weapon, and involved 22kg of plutonium.^[22] They produced "jets of molten, burning plutonium extending hundreds of feet into the air."^[23] It was the subsequent disposal of the waste plutonium from these minor trials – Vixen B especially – which created the major radiation problems at the site.^[23]

Cleanup and effects

The cleanup operation was codenamed Operation Brumby, and was conducted in 1967.^[1] Attempts were made to dilute the concentration of radioactive material by turning over and mixing the surface soil.^[23] Additionally, the remains of the firings, including plutonium-contaminated fragments, were buried in 22 concrete-capped pits.^[23] Year 1967 (MCMLXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the 1967 Gregorian calendar. ...

The McClelland Royal Commission into the tests delivered its report in late 1985, and found that significant radiation hazards still existed at many of the Maralinga test sites, particularly at Taranaki,^[20] where the Vixen B trials into the effects of burning plutonium had been carried out. A Technical Assessment Group was setup to advise on rehabilitation options, and a much more extensive cleanup program was initiated at the site.^[23] The McClelland Royal Commission or Royal Commission into British nuclear tests in Australia was an inquiry ran by the Australian government in 1984-1985 to investigate the conduct of the British in its use, with the then Australian governments tacit acknowledgement of Australian territory and soldiers for testing nuclear weapons. ... This article is about the year. ... General Name, Symbol, Number plutonium, Pu, 94 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight (244) g·mol−1 Electron configuration [Rn] 5f6 7s2 Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2 Physical properties Phase solid Density (near r. ...

The TAG Report plan was approved in 1991.^[20] In the worst-contaminated areas, 350,000 cubic metres of soil and debris were removed from an area of more than 2 square kilometers, and buried in trenches. Eleven debris pits were also treated with in-situ vitrification.^[20] Clearance certificates have now been issued for the site,^[20] though Alan Parkinson has observed that "an Aboriginal living a semi-traditional lifestyle would receive an effective dose of 5 mSv/a (five times that allowed for a member of the public). Within the 120 km², the effective dose would be up to 13 times greater."^[24] Work is underway to return the site to its traditional owners.^[20] A vitrification experiment for the study of nuclear waste disposal at Pacific Northwest National Labs Vitrification is a process of converting a material into a glass-like amorphous solid which is free of any crystalline structure, either by the quick removal or addition of heat, or by mixing with an...

A Department of Veterans' Affairs study concluded that "Overall, the doses received by Australian participants were small. ... Only 2% of participants received more than the current Australian annual dose limit for occupationally exposed persons (20 mSv)."^[25] However, such findings are contested. Terry Toon of the Atomic Ex-Serviceman's Association stated that out of 10,700 personnel who worked in the area over a 10 year period in the 1950s and 1960s there were over 9,000 persons who had died by 2005 and approximately 75-80 percent of those were from cancer.^[26]

Footnotes

Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 279th day of the year (280th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 278th day of the year (279th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 279th day of the year (280th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 279th day of the year (280th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 279th day of the year (280th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 278th day of the year (279th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 278th day of the year (279th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 278th day of the year (279th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 279th day of the year (280th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 279th day of the year (280th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 280th day of the year (281st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 280th day of the year (281st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 280th day of the year (281st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 280th day of the year (281st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 277th day of the year (278th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Further reading

• Robert Milliken (1986). No Conceivable Injury. Penguin Books Australia. ISBN 0-14-008438-X. 
• Cross, R. T. (2005). Beyond belief : the British bomb tests : Australia's veterans speak out. Wakefield Press. ISBN 1862546606. 

External link

• Video of British Nuclear Tests
• Rehabilitation of former nuclear test sites at Emu and Maralinga (Australia) 2003 - Report by the Maralinga Rehabilitation Technical Advisory Committee (MARTAC Report)