Monasticism is one of the most fundamental institutions of Buddhism. Monks and nuns are responsible for preserving and spreading Buddhist teachings, as well as educating and guiding Buddhist lay followers. The ultimate goal of Buddhist monasticism is the liberation of all beings from the cycle of rebirth through Nirvana. Collectively, the ordained male and female Buddhist monastics constitute two of the four groups that compose the Buddhist sangha (the other two groups being male and female lay followers). All four groups are seen as being important and necessary for the survival and spread of Buddhism in the world, with the ordained vocation seen as being the highest achievement for a Buddhist practitioner. Monasticism (from Greek: monachos — a solitary person) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote ones life to spiritual work. ... A statue of the Sakyamuni Buddha in Tawang Gompa, India. ... This article is about the Buddhist concept. ... Sangha (संघ saṃgha) is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as association or assembly or community. It is commonly used in several senses to refer to Buddhist or Jain groups. ...

History and development

Further information: Sangha

The order of Buddhist monks and nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime of over 2500 years ago. The Buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering ascetics, some of whom the Buddha had studied under. It was not really isolationist or eremetic in nature as the sangha was dependent on the lay community for basic provisions of food and clothing, and in return the sangha members were to help guide the lay followers on the path of Dharma. Individuals or small groups of monks- a teacher and his students, or several monks who were friends- would travel together, living on the outskirts of local communities and practicing meditation in the forests. Monks and nuns were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that monks required, and provided shelter for monks when they were needed. During Buddha's time, many retreats and gardens were donated by wealthy citizens for monks and nuns to stay in during the rainy season. Out of this tradition grew out two kinds of living quarters for monks and nuns detailed in the Mahavagga section of the Vinaya and Varsavastu texts : Sangha (संघ saṃgha) is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as association or assembly or community. It is commonly used in several senses to refer to Buddhist or Jain groups. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... Siddhartha and Gautama redirect here. ... A hermit, also known as an anchorite or anchoress, is a person living in voluntary seclusion, often for religious reasons. ... Sangha (संघ saṃgha) is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as association or assembly or community. It is commonly used in several senses to refer to Buddhist or Jain groups. ... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) or Dhamma (Pāli: धम्म) in Buddhism has two primary meanings: the teachings of the Buddha which lead to enlightenment the constituent factors of the experienced world In East Asia, the character for Dharma is 法, pronounced fÇŽ in Mandarin and hō in Japanese. ... The Vinaya (a word in Pali as well as in Sanskrit, with literal meaning discipline) is the textual framework for the Buddhist monastic community, or sangha. ...

1. Avasa (pronounced avAsA) - this was a temporary house for monastics called a vihara. Generally however, more than one monk used to stay in each house with each monk getting his own individual cell called a parivena.

2. Arama (pronounced ArAma) - was more permanent and more comfortable than an avasa. This property was generally donated and maintained by a wealthy citizen. This was more lavish as the name suggests (Araama means pleasant and also means "park"). It generally consisted of residences within orchards or parks. ^[1]

One of the more famous Arama is Anathapindika's, known as Anathapindikassa arame, built on Prince Jeta's grove. It had buildings worth 1.8 million gold pieces built in a beautiful grove, with the total gift worth 5.4 million gold pieces. ^[2] Vihara (विहार) is Sanskrit or Pali for (Buddhist) monastery. ... Anathapindika - Chief lay disciple of Buddha, and his name means feeder of the orphans or helpless. His given name was Sudatta. ...

After the parinirvana of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns- the Patimokkha- relate to such an existing, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of monks or nuns. The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada monks follow around 227 rules. There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis. The death of the Buddha, or Mahaparinirvana, Gandhara 2-3rd century. ... The cenobitic tradition is a monastic tradition that stresses community life. ... Vassa (Thai พรรษา, pansa or phansaa), also called Rains Retreat, is the traditional retreat during the rainy season lasting for three lunar months from July to October. ... In Buddhism, the Patimokkha is the basic Theravada code of monastic discipline, consisting of 227 rules for fully ordained monks (bhikkhus) and 311 for nuns (bhikkhunis). ...

Monasticism's role in creating literate societies

Monastic institutions and missions became vehicles for the spread of literate cultures throughout the ancient world and held an important place in promoting charitable causes, building libraries, hospitals, schools and universities.

We see this in the Mauryan, where Emperor Ashoka builds rest houses for weary travellers, wells, free hospitals for both humans and animals and helped monasteries become institutions of learning such as Nalanda University and Vikramshila. The Mauryan empire (321 to 185 BCE), at its largest extent around 230 BCE. The Mauryan empire was Indias first great unified empire. ... Allegiance: Magadhan Empire Rank: Emperor Succeeded by: Dasaratha Maurya Reign: 273 BC-232 BC Place of birth: Pataliputra, India Battles/Wars Kalinga War Emperor Ashoka the Great (Devanagari: अशोक(:); IAST transliteration: , pronunciation: ) (304 BC–232 BC) (Imperial Title:Devanampiya Piyadassi ie He who is the beloved of the Gods who, in... Remains at Nalanda Nalanda is a historical place in central Bihar, India, 90 km south-east of the state capital of Patna. ... Vikramshila University was one of the two most important centers of Buddhist learning in India, along with Nalanda University. ...

During the Tang Dynasty - the monasteries fostered artistic creativity, cared for the sick, old and orphans, ran community development projects such as developing roads, building bridges and wells. For the band, see Tang Dynasty (band). ...

Even today in Southeast Asia, many monasteries serve as free accommodations, retirement homes and homes for the homeless or chronically ill. Poor families frequently use it as a hostel. The monasteries frequently serve as the village library and news and information center and the surplus money is used to make schools.

...as Buddhism spread literate culture into many societies in the process of political unification and organization, it is not surprising that the sangha came to wield political influence, or even political power, in a number of countries.^[3]

Monastic life

The Buddhist monastic order is theoretically divided into two assemblies, the male bhikkhu (in Pali, or bhikshu in Sanskrit) assembly, and the female bhikkhuni (bhikshuni) assembly. Initially consisting only of men, the Buddha recognized women after his step-mother, Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. In modern practice, the bhikkhuni lineage died out in some Theravada communities, failed to be established in the Vajrayana communities of Tibet and Nepal, and currently exists only in a few orders. A Buddhist Monk in Sri Lanka In Pāli, a bhikkhu (male) or bhikkhuni (female) is a fully ordained Buddhist monk. ... Pāli is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... Categories: Buddhism-related stubs | Buddhist terms ... Sanskrit ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... High-ranking Chinese bhikkunis in an alms round. ... A Bhikṣuṇī (Sanskrit) , Bhikkuṇī (Pāli) or 比丘尼(Chinese characters) is a fully ordained female Buddhist monastic. ... Mahapajapati Gotami (in Pali; Mahaprajapati Gautami in Sanskrit) was the first woman to request ordination from the Buddha and to join the Sangha. ... High-ranking Chinese bhikkunis in an alms round. ... Theravada (Pāli: theravāda; Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda; literally, the Way of the Elders) is the oldest surviving Buddhist school, and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (about 70% of the population[1]) and most of continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand). ... A mandala used in Vajrayana Buddhist practices. ...

Young Buddhist monks in Tibet

Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers- providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the monks. In return for the support of the laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character. The relative degree of emphasis on meditation or study has often been debated in the Buddhist community. Young Buddhist monks in Tibet. ... Young Buddhist monks in Tibet. ... A statue of the Sakyamuni Buddha in Tawang Gompa, India. ...

A Bhikkhu or Bhikkhuni , first ordains as a Samanera (novice) for a year or more. Male novices often ordain at a very young age, but generally no younger than 8. Women usually choose to ordain as adults, since there is no expectation that they do so in childhood. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules vinaya. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu or Bhikkhuni, is usually given only to those age 20 or older. Women monastics follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer period of time, typically five years. In Thailand, monks are considered to be well-supported by the community and in return, the monks teach education and guidance to life and Buddhism. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into sangha. ... The Ten Precepts (Pali: dasasila or samanerasikkha) are the precepts or training-rules for samaneras (male) and samaneris (female), also referred to as novice monks or nuns. ... The Vinaya (a word in Pali as well as in Sanskrit, with literal meaning discipline) is the textual framework for the Buddhist monastic community, or sangha. ...

The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline, seen as being the preeminent factor in separating the life of a monastic from that of a householder. Depending on the tradition and the strictness of observation, monastics may eat only one meal a day, provided either by direct donations of food from lay supporters, or from a monastery kitchen that is stocked (and possibly staffed) by lay supporters. Celibacy refers either to being unmarried or to sexual abstinence. ... In canonical Buddhism, householder refers to a particular strata of society whose individuals are typified by having a home life and family. ...

Unlike Christian monastics, Buddhist monastics are not required to live a life of obedience to a superior. However, it is expected that monastics will offer respect to senior members of the Sangha (in Thai tradition, seniority is based on the number of rains retreats, vassas, that one has been ordained). The Buddha did not appoint a successor, nor did he specify rules mandating obedience in the monastic code. Individual groups of monastics are expected to make decisions collectively through regular gatherings of the community, at which decisions regarding violations of monastic rules and the dispositions of communal property are to be made. Individual relationships of teacher/student, senior/junior, and preceptor/trainee may be observed among groups of monastics, but there are no formal positions, nor is there any authority to give orders or commands invested in senior monks. An abbess or abbot, typically a senior monastic still young enough to be active, is usually responsible for the day-to-day administration of the monastery, and may appoint others to assist with the work. In some traditions, the abbess/abbot is chosen by a vote of the monastics in a monastery. In other traditions (Thailand, for example), the abbot is chosen by the lay community. The Order of Friars Minor is a major mendicant movement founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. ... Vassa (Thai พรรษา, pansa or phansaa), also called Rains Retreat, is the traditional retreat during the rainy season lasting for three lunar months from July to October. ... An Abbess (Latin abbatissa, fem. ... For other uses, see Abbot (disambiguation). ...

Local variations

Monastic practices vary significantly according to location. In part, this can be attributed to differences in the scriptural and doctrinal traditions that were received in different parts of the Buddhist world. Additionally, local concessions to social, geographical, and climatic conditions have been adopted by most monastic orders in order to smooth the integration of monks into local communities, and to ensure that monks live in a safe and reasonable manner. In cold climates, for instance, monks are permitted to own and wear additional clothing not specified in the scriptures. In areas where begging rounds are impossible (due to traffic, geography, or disfavor by the lay community), monks more commonly employ a kitchen staff of monks or lay followers who are responsible for providing meals for the community.

Tibet

In Tibet, before the Communist invasion in the late 1940s and early '50s, more than half of the country's male population was ordained. Due to the oppression, and destruction of monasteries and libraries by the Chinese, this is no longer the case - the Chinese have historically justified this by the accusation that the Tibetan monks exploited the poor peasantry of Tibet for their sustenance. Hoping to find religious freedom, many Tibetan monks annually risk crossing the Himalayas, often trying to reach India. While generally adhering to a Mahayana tradition that advocates the virtues of vegetarianism, Tibetan monks generally eat meat as a concession to climatic conditions that make a plant based diet largely unfeasible. This article is about historical/cultural Tibet. ... For the movie Himalaya, see Himalaya (film). ...

A begging monk in Kyoto, Japan

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1296x1784, 1653 KB) Summary Same as Japanese buddhist monk by Arashiyama. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1296x1784, 1653 KB) Summary Same as Japanese buddhist monk by Arashiyama. ...

East Asia

In East Asia, monastics live in greater isolation from the lay population than is observed in most Theravada countries. Because of local conditions of geography and climate, as well as local attitudes towards begging, monks generally do not make begging rounds in China, Korea, Vietnam and many parts of Japan. Instead, monasteries receive donations of bulk food (such as rice) and funds for the purchase of food that is then stored and prepared at the monastery. The management of the kitchen and monastery properties may be the purview of a specially designated layman, or a monk who has been given a special role by the abbot of the monastery. Theravada (Pāli: theravāda; Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda; literally, the Way of the Elders) is the oldest surviving Buddhist school, and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (about 70% of the population[1]) and most of continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand). ... This article is about the Korean peninsula and civilization. ...

Monastics in Japan are particularly exceptional in the Buddhist tradition because they generally marry after receiving their higher ordination. There had long been many instances of Japanese monks marrying, from the Heian period (794-1185) onward, ^[1] but it was not predominante until a government initiative was passed during the Meiji Restoration that required monks to seek wives. While one of the four Tibetan monastic orders permits marriage, as well as some Korean orders, Japan is the only Buddhist country where the majority of religious specialists are married. The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article History of Japan#Heian Period. ... The Meiji Restoration ), also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, or Renewal, was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japans political and social structure. ...

Southeast Asia

In Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar where the Theravada school is dominant, there is a long tradition of temporary ordination. During a school break, many young men usually ordain for a week or two to earn merit for loved ones and to gain knowledge of Buddhist teachings. In most countries, this temporary ordination occurs during the vassa retreat, which is regarded as a period of intensified spiritual effort by local Buddhists. Men in Thailand typically ordain only before being married; men in Laos and Myanmar could traditionally return to the monastery from time to time after being married, provided that they secured their wives' permission. Theravada monks are also most likely to engage in traditional begging practices, although the urbanization of parts of Southeast Asian (particularly Thailand) has presented a challenge to this practice. Theravada (Pāli: theravāda; Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda; literally, the Way of the Elders) is the oldest surviving Buddhist school, and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (about 70% of the population[1]) and most of continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand). ...

In Thailand, where the Buddhist institution has traditionally been closely associated with the government and the institution of kingship, a more hierarchical structure has evolved to deal with the administration and regulation of monasteries. This system initially stemmed from a system of royal patronage, in which monks who were appointed the abbots of 'royal monasteries' (those endowed and supported by members of the royal family) were accorded greater respect than those who headed more conventional monasteries. This system remained fairly unstructured until the modernisation efforts of the 19th Century, during which a more formal system of governance was created by the central government. Modern Thai monks are ranked according to their ability to pass examinations in Buddhist doctrine and the Pali language, and are appointed to successively higher positions in the ecclesiastic hierarchy on the basis of these exams, as well as their support among influential members of the royal family and government. Local affairs continue to be handled primarily by the local monastic and lay community, but nationwide efforts (such as curriculum decisions for monastic schools, and the authoritative form of scriptures and rituals) are typically made by the central hierarchy. Pāli is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ...

See also

• Buddhist ethics
• Greco-Buddhist monasticism
• Sangha
• Monasticism
• Monastery

// Buddhisms ethical foundation for laypeople is the Pancasila: no killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, or intoxicants. ... The role of Greek Buddhist monks in the development of the Buddhist faith under the patronage of emperor Ashoka around 260 BCE, and then during the reign of Menander is described in an important non-canonical Theravada Buddhist historical text compiled in Sri Lanka in the 6th century CE, in... Sangha (संघ saṃgha) is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as association or assembly or community. It is commonly used in several senses to refer to Buddhist or Jain groups. ... Monasticism (from Greek: monachos — a solitary person) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote ones life to spiritual work. ... Monastery of St. ...

References

1. ^ Buddhist Monastic Discipline, by Charles S. Prebish (ISBN 0-271-01171-8)
2. ^ Khuddaka Nikaya, Khuddakapatha
3. ^ An Introduction to Buddhism, by Peter Harvey