NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Bufotenin

Bufotenin (also known as bufotenine), is a tryptamine related to the neurotransmitter serotonin. It is an alkaloid found in the skin of some species of toads; in mushrooms, higher plants, and mammals; and possibly in the brain, plasma, and urine of schizophrenics.^[1] In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison or other substance is brought into contact with the body 1. ... Tryptamine (3-(2-aminoethyl)indole) is a monoamine compound that is widespread in nature. ... Chemical structure of D-aspartic acid, a common amino acid neurotransmitter. ... Serotonin (pronounced ) (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract of animals including humans. ... Chemical structure of ephedrine, a phenethylamine alkaloid An alkaloid is, strictly speaking, a naturally occurring amine produced by a plant,[1] but amines produced by animals and fungi are also called alkaloids. ... Families At least 9, see article. ... Basidiocarps (mushrooms) of the fungus Leucocoprinus sp. ... u fuck in ua ... Orders Subclass Monotremata Monotremata Subclass Marsupialia Didelphimorphia Paucituberculata Microbiotheria Dasyuromorphia Peramelemorphia Notoryctemorphia Diprotodontia Subclass Placentalia Xenarthra Dermoptera Desmostylia Scandentia Primates Rodentia Lagomorpha Insectivora Chiroptera Pholidota Carnivora Perissodactyla Artiodactyla Cetacea Afrosoricida Macroscelidea Tubulidentata Hyracoidea Proboscidea Sirenia The mammals are the class of vertebrate animals primarily characterized by the presence of mammary... For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Schizophrenia is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a persistent, often chronic, mental illness variously affecting behavior, thinking, and emotion. ...

The name bufotenin originates from the Bufo genus of toads, which includes several species of psychoactive toads (such as Bufo alvarius and Bufo marinus) that secrete bufotoxins from their parotoid glands.^[2] Bufotenin is very similar in chemical structure to the hallucinogen psilocin; the only structural difference is that the hydroxyl (-OH) group is located one carbon over on the indole ring. However, pharmacologically, it is more closely related to 5-MeO-DMT and DMT,^{[citation needed]} chemicals that often occur in plant and animal species in which bufotenin is found. Whether bufotenine is also hallucingenic has been the subject of debate among researchers. Species See text. ... Psychoactive toad is a name used for toads from which psychoactive substances from the family of bufotoxins can be derived. ... Binomial name Girard in Baird, 1859 The Colorado River Toad or Bufo alvarius, also known as the Sonoran Desert Toad, is a psychoactive toad found in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. ... Binomial name Bufo marinus Linnaeus, 1758 The Giant Neotropical Toad (Bufo marinus) is native to the Americas from southern Texas to northern Argentina. ... Secretion is the process of segregating, elaborating, and releasing chemicals from a cell, or a secreted chemical substance or amount of substance. ... Bufotoxin - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... The largest parotoid gland can be seen just behind the ear of this Cane Toad, although all warts on the toad are also parotoid glands. ... Hallucinogenic drug - drugs that can alter sensory perceptions. ... Psilocin,(4-HO-DMT) sometimes called psilocine or psilotsin, is a psychedelic (hallucinogenic) mushroom alkaloid. ... // Hydroxyl group The term hydroxyl group is used to describe the functional group -OH when it is a substituent in an organic compound. ... Indole is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound. ... 5-MeO-DMT is a very powerful psychedelic tryptamine. ... Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), also known as N,N-dimethyltryptamine, is a psychedelic tryptamine. ...

Nomenclature

Bufotenin (bufotenine) is also known by the chemical names 5-hydroxy-dimethyltryptamine (5-OH-DMT), N,N-dimethyl-5-hydroxytryptamine, dimethyl serotonin,^[3] and mappine.^[3]

History

Bufotenine was first isolated, from toad skin, and named by the Austrian chemist Handovsky at the University of Prague during World War I.^[4] The structure of bufotenine was first confirmed in 1934 by Heinrich Wieland’s laboratory in Munich, and the first reported synthesis of bufotenine was by Toshio Hoshino in 1936.^[4] The Charles University of Prague (also simply University of Prague; Czech: Univerzita Karlova; Latin: Universitas Carolina) is the oldest and most prestigious Czech university and among the oldest universities in Europe, being founded in 1340s (for the exact year, see below). ... â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... Heinrich Otto Wieland (June 4, 1877 - August 5, 1957) was a German chemist. ...

Sources

Toads

Bufotenin is a chemical constituent in the venom and eggs of several species of toads belonging to the Bufo genus, including Bufo alvarius and Bufo marinus. Extracts of toad venom, containing bufotenin and other bioactive compounds, have been used in some traditional medicines such as ch’an su (probably derived from Bufo gargarizans), which has been used medicinally for centuries in China.^[5] Psychoactive toad is a name used for toads from which psychoactive substances from the family of bufotoxins can be derived. ... ... Binomial name Cantor, 1842 The Asiatic toad, or Bufo gargarizans, is a species of toad found in East Asia. ...

The toad was "recurrently depicted in Mesoamerican art,"^[6] which some authors have interpreted as indicating that the effects of ingesting Bufo secretions have been known in Mesoamerica for many years; however, others doubt that this art provides sufficient "ethnohistorical evidence" to support the claim. ^[5] Mesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border of Costa Rica that gave rise to a group of stratified, culturally related agrarian civilizations spanning an approximately 3,000-year period before the European discovery of the New World by Columbus. ...

In addition to bufotenine, Bufo venoms also contain digoxin-like cardiac glycosides, and ingestion of the venom can be fatal. Ingestion of Bufo toad venom and eggs by humans has resulted in several reported cases of poisoning,^[7]^[8]^[9] some of which resulted in death.^[9]^[10]^[11] Digoxin (INN) (IPA: ) is a purified cardiac glycoside extracted from the foxglove plant, Digitalis lanata. ... Cardiac glycosides are drugs used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia. ...

Contemporary reports indicate that bufotenine-containing toad venom has been used as a street drug; that is, as an aphrodisiac, ingested orally in the form of ch’an su,^[9] and as a hallucinogen, by smoking or orally ingesting Bufo toad venom or dried Bufo skins. The use of chan'su and love stone (a related toad venom preparation used as an aphrodisiac in the West Indies) has resulted in several cases of poisoning and at least one death.^[9]^[12] The practice of orally ingesting toad venom has been referred to in popular culture and in the scientific literature as toad licking and has drawn media attention^[13]^[14]. Albert Most, founder of the Church of the Toad of Light and a proponent of recreational use of Bufo alvarius venom, published a booklet titled Bufo avlarius: The Psychedelic Toad of the Sonoran Desert^[15]^[16] in 1983 which explained how to extract and smoke the secretions. A street drug is a drug taken for non-medical reasons, usually for an exhilirating feeling or mind-altering effects. ... An aphrodisiac is an agent which is used to increase sexual desire [1]. The name comes from the Greek goddess of Sensuality Aphrodite. ... The Caribbean or the West Indies is a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. ... Psychoactive toad is a name used for toads from which psychoactive substances from the family of bufotoxins can be derived. ... Binomial name Bufo alvarius Girard in Baird, 1859 The Colorado River Toad or Bufo alvarius, also known as the Sonoran Desert Toad, is a psychoactive toad found in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. ... Year 1983 (MCMLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar). ...

Bufotenin is also present in the skin secretion of three arboreal amphibian species of the Osteocephalus genus (Osteocephalus taurinus, Osteocephalus oophagus, and Osteocephalus langsdorffii) from the Amazon and Atlantic rain forests.^[17] Species Slender-legged Treefrogs (Osteocephalus) is a genus of frogs in the Hylidae family, and are found in the Guianas, the Amazon Basin, Venezuela, Colombia, southeastern Brazil and northeastern Argentina. ... Binomial name Steindachner, 1862 Synonyms Hyla depressa Andersson, 1945 Hyla vilarsi Melin, 1941 Osteocephalus flavolineatus Steindachner, 1862 The Rana De Casco Comun (Osteocephalus taurinus) is a species of frog in the Hylidae family. ... Binomial name Jungfer & Schiesari, 1995 Osteocephalus oophagus is a species of frog in the Hylidae family. ... Amazon can refer to The Amazon River Amazon Rainforest Amazon (people) Ancient women warriors A female gladiator. ... A rainforest is a forested biome with high annual rainfall. ...

Anadenanthera Seeds

Bufotenin is the primary active constituent ^[disputed] of the seeds of Anadenanthera colubrina and Anadenanthera peregrina trees.^[18] Anadenanthera seeds have been in use as hallucinogens ^[disputed] for over 4000 years.^[18] The use of these seeds have been historically linked to shamans in South America and in the Caribbean Islands.^[18]^[19]^{[unreliable source?]} Archeological evidence shows smoking as the original route of administration of Anadenanthera seeds. The seeds are smoked alone or often mixed with tobacco. Cigars sometimes used by shamans containing ground Anadenanthera seeds mixed with tobacco are estimated to contain up to 196 mg of bufotenin. Snuff and enema usage appears later in history.^[18] Snuff preparations eventually became the most widely accepted route of administration.^[18] Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... Binomial name Speg. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... This writeup is about biological seeds; for other meanings see Seed (disambiguation). ... Binomial name (Vell. ... Binomial name Speg. ... Species See text Anadenanthera is a genus of South American trees in the Legume family, Leguminosae or Fabaceae. ... The shaman is an intellectual and spiritual figure who is regarded as possessing power and influence on other peoples in the tribe and performs several functions, primarily that of a healer ( medicine man). The shaman provides medical care, and serves other community needs during crisis times, via supernatural means (means... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... â€œWest Indianâ€ redirects here. ... Species See text Anadenanthera is a genus of South American trees in the Legume family, Leguminosae or Fabaceae. ... The shaman is an intellectual and spiritual figure who is regarded as possessing power and influence on other peoples in the tribe and performs several functions, primarily that of a healer ( medicine man). The shaman provides medical care, and serves other community needs during crisis times, via supernatural means (means... Species See text Anadenanthera is a genus of South American trees in the Legume family, Leguminosae or Fabaceae. ...

The snuffs known as Vilca and Yopo (also known as Cohoba)^[18]^[19]^[20] are made from the seeds of the Anadenanthera colubrina and Anadenanthera peregrina trees, respectively. Cohoba was used by the tribe with whom Christopher Columbus made first contact, the Taino of Cuba and Hispaniola.^[21] Anadenanthera snuff is usually processed by toasting the seeds, removing the seed husks, and then grinding them to a fine powder. To improve the snuff's potency, most shamans usually add a natural form of calcium hydroxide (or calcium oxide) and a little water to the snuff. The mix is kneaded for several minutes and allowed to sit overnight. It is then dried and ground to a powder once more.^[18] Phenolic compounds such as bufotenine react with calcium hydroxide to form phenoxides. This processing with calcium hydroxide converts bufotenin (5-HO-DMT) into its phenoxide form: calcium bufotenoxide (Ca + 5-O-DMT, also known as calcium bufotenate), a compound with increased hallucinogenic properties. A typical dose of snuff contains over 100 mg of bufotenin^[18]^[disputed]. Binomial name Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell. ... Binomial name Anadenanthera peregrina Speg. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Binomial name (Vell. ... Binomial name Speg. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Christopher Columbus (1451 â€“ May 20, 1506) was a navigator and maritime explorer credited as the discoverer of the Americas. ... The Taíno are the pre-Hispanic Amerindian inhabitants of the Greater Antilles, which includes Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, Jamaica and the Bahamas. ... Early map of Hispaniola The island of Hispaniola (from Spanish, La EspaÃ±ola) is the second-largest island of the Antilles, lying between the islands of Cuba to the west, and Puerto Rico to the east. ... Species See text Anadenanthera is a genus of South American trees in the Legume family, Leguminosae or Fabaceae. ... The shaman is an intellectual and spiritual figure who is regarded as possessing power and influence on other peoples in the tribe and performs several functions, primarily that of a healer ( medicine man). The shaman provides medical care, and serves other community needs during crisis times, via supernatural means (means... It has been suggested that Portlandite be merged into this article or section. ... Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as lime, quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. ... Phenol, also known under an older name of carbolic acid, is a colourless crystalline solid with a typical sweet tarry odor. ... It has been suggested that Portlandite be merged into this article or section. ... Phenol, also known under an older name of carbolic acid, is a colourless crystalline solid with a typical sweet tarry odor. ... It has been suggested that Portlandite be merged into this article or section. ... Phenol, also known under an older name of carbolic acid, is a colourless crystalline solid with a typical sweet tarry odor. ...

Mushrooms

Bufotenine is also found in several species of Amanita mushrooms, including Amanita muscaria,^[22] Amanita citrina^[4] and Amanita porphyria.^[4] The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics and contains some of the most toxic known mushrooms, found worldwide. ... Binomial name (L.:Fr. ... This amanita is recognized by its pale yellow to pale green colors, its abrupt basal bulb, and the faitly potato-like smell of the fresh gills. ... Binomial name Amanita porphyria (Alb. ...

Other Sources

Bufotenin has been identified as a component in the latex of the takini (Brosimum acutifolium) tree, which is used as a hallucinogen by South American shamans,^[23] and in the seeds of Mucuna pruriens DC ^[24] Species See text Brosimum is a genus of plants in the family Moraceae, native to tropical regions of the Americas. ... Binomial name Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Mucuna pruriens (syn. ...

Pharmacology

Uptake and Elimination

In rats, subcutaneously administered bufotenin (1–100 μg/kg) distributes mainly to the lungs, heart, and blood, and to a much lesser extent, the brain (hypothalamus, brain stem, striatum, and cerebral cortex) and liver. It reaches peak concentrations at 1 hour and is nearly completely eliminated within 8 hours.^[25] In humans, bufotenine is rapidly absorbed following intravenous administration and is excreted in the urine predominantly (70%) in the form of 5-HIAA, an endogenous metabolite of serotonin, while roughly 4% is eliminated unmetabolized in the urine. Orally administered bufotenine undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. The subcutis is the layer of tissue directly underlying the cutis. ... The heart and lungs (from an older edition of Grays Anatomy) The lung is an organ belonging to the respiratory system and interfacing to the circulatory system of air-breathing vertebrates. ... The heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis). ... The brain stem is the lower part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal cord. ... Coronal slices of human brain showing the basal ganglia, the striatum and pallidum globus pallidus: external segment (GPe), subthalamic nucleus (STN), globus pallidus: internal segment (GPi), and substantia nigra (SN). ... Location of the cerebral cortex Slice of the cerebral cortex, ca. ... The liver is an organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. ... An intravenous drip in a hospital Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the administration of liquid substances directly into a vein. ... Excretion is the biological process by which an organism separates waste products from its body. ... 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5 HIAA) is the main metabolite of serotonin in the human body. ... Look up Endogenous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A metabolite is the product of metabolism. ... The first pass effect (or first pass metabolism) is a phenomenon of drug metabolism. ... Monoamine oxidase Monoamine oxidases (singular abbreviation MAO) (EC 1. ...

Lethal Dose

The acute toxicity of bufotenin in rodents has been calculated to have an LD₅₀ of between 200 and 300 mg/kg, which by comparison, is comparable to the LD₅₀ for intravenous morphine (200-300 mg/kg) in mice.^[18] Death occurs by respiratory arrest.^[18] An LD50 test being administered In toxicology, the LD50 or colloquially semilethal dose of a particular substance is a measure of how much constitutes a lethal dose. ... An LD50 test being administered In toxicology, the LD50 or colloquially semilethal dose of a particular substance is a measure of how much constitutes a lethal dose. ... Morphine (INN) (IPA: ) is a highly potent opiate analgesic drug and is the principal active agent in opium and the prototypical opiate. ...

Effects in Humans

Fabing & Hawkins (1955)

In 1955, Fabing and Hawkins administered bufotenin intravenously at doses of up to 16 mg to prison inmates at Ohio State Penitentiary. ^[26] A troubling toxic blood circulation effect causing a purpling of the face was seen in these tests.

A subject given 1 mg reported “a tight feeling in the chest” and prickling “as if he had been jabbed by needles.” This was accompanied by a “fleeting sensation of pain in both thighs and a mild nausea.” ^[26]

Another subject given 2 mg reported “tightness in his throat”. He had tightness in the stomach, tingling in pretibial areas, and developed a purplish hue in the face indicating blood circulation problems. He vomited after 3 minutes. ^[26]

Another subject given 4 mg complained of “chest oppression” and that “a load is pressing down from above and my body feels heavy.” The subject also reported “numbness of the entire body” and “a pleasant Martini feeling-my body is taking charge of my mind”. The subject reported he saw red spots passing before his eyes and red-purple spots on the floor, and the floor seemed very close to his face. Within 2 minutes these visual effects were gone, and replaced by a yellow haze, as if he were looking through a lens filter. ^[26]

Fabing and Hawkins commented that bufotenin’s hallucinogenic effects were "reminiscent of LSD and mescaline but develop and dispappear more quickly, indicating rapid central action and rapid degradation of the drug". Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly called LSD, LSD-25, or acid. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Isbell (1956)

In 1956, Dr. Harris S. Isbell at the Public Health Service Hospital in Lexington, Kentucky experimented with bufotenine as a snuff. He reported “no subjective or objective effects were observed after spraying with as much as 40 mg bufotenine”; however subjects who received 10-12 mg injected intramuscularly reported “elements of visual hallucinations consisting of a play of colors, lights, and patterns”.^[4] Nickname: Location in the Commonwealth of Kentucky Coordinates: , Country United States State Kentucky Counties Fayette Government - Mayor Jim Newberry (D) Area - City 285. ... Intramuscular injection is an injection of a substance directly into a muscle. ...

Turner & Merlis (1959)

Turner and Merlis (1959) ^[27] experimented with intravenous administration of bufotenine (as the water soluble creatinine sulfate salt) to schizophrenics at a New York state hospital. They reported that when one subject received 10 mg during a 50-second interval, “the peripheral nervous system effects were extreme: at 17 seconds, flushing of the face, at 22 seconds, maximal inhalation, followed by maximal hyperventilation for about 2 minutes, during which the patient was unresponsive to stimuli; her face was plum-colored. Finally, Turner and Merlis reported that:

After pushing doses to the morally admissible limit without producing hallucinations, Turner and Merlis conservatively concluded: “We must reject bufotenine…as capable of producing the acute phase of Cohoba intoxication”.^[4] A hallucination is a false sensory perception in the absence of an external stimulus, as distinct from an illusion, which is a misperception of an external stimulus. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

McLeod and Sitaram (1985)

A 1985 study by McLeod and Sitaram in humans reported that bufotenine administered intranasally at a dose of 1-16 mg had no effect, other than intense local irritation. When given intravenously at low doses (2-4 mg), bufotenine oxalate caused anxiety but no other effects; however, a dose of 8 mg resulted in profound emotional and perceptual changes, involving extreme anxiety, a sense of imminent death, and visual disturbance associated with color reversal and distortion, and intense flushing of the cheeks and forehead. ^[28] The intranasal route is the route of administration of a drug through the nose, including nose drops or other medications. ... An oxalate (called also: ethanedioate) is a salt or ester of oxalic acid. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ...

Ott (2001)

In 2001, Jonathan Ott, an amateur ethnobotanist, published the results of a study in which he self-administered free base bufotenin intranasally (5-100 mg), sublingually (50 mg), intrarectally (30 mg), orally (100 mg) and via vaporization (2-8 mg).^[29] Ott reported “visionary effects" of intranasal bufotenine and that the "visionary threshold dose" by this route was 40 mg, with smaller doses eliciting perceptibly psychoactive effects. He reported that "intranasal bufotenine is throughout quite physically relaxing; in no case was there facial rubescence, nor any discomfort nor disesteeming side effects". This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Freebase refers to the standalone basic form of an alkaloid, as opposed to its salt form. ... Sublingual, literally under the tongue, from Latin, refers to a pharmacological route of administration in which certain drugs are entered directly into the bloodstream via absorption under the tongue. ... The posterior aspect of the rectum exposed by removing the lower part of the sacrum and the coccyx. ... Oral (Russian: Уральск, Uralsk , also spelled Uralsk) is a city in western Kazakhstan, along the Ural (Zhayyq) River. ... For the food preparation, see Smoking (cooking). ...

At 100 mg, effects began within 5 minutes, peaked at 35-40 minutes, and lasted up to 90 minutes. Higher doses produced effects that were described as hallucinogenic, such as "swirling, colored patterns typical of tryptamines, tending toward the arabesque". Free base bufotenin taken sublingually was found to be identical to intranasal use. The potency, duration, and hallucinogenic action was the same. Ott found vaporized free base bufotenin active from 2-8 mg with 8 mg producing "ring-like, swirling, colored patterns with eyes closed".

Ott noted that free base bufotenin taken intranasally and sublingually produced effects similar to those of Yopo without the toxic peripheral symptoms, such as facial flushing, observed in other studies in which the the drug was administered intravenously.

Association With Schizophrenia and Other Mental Disorders

A study conducted in the late 1960s reported the detection of bufotenin in the urine of schizophrenic subjects;^[30] however, subsequent research has failed to confirm these findings.^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34] The 1960s decade refers to the years from January 1, 1960 to December 31, 1969, inclusive. ...

Studies have detected endogenous bufotenin in urine specimens from individuals with other psychiatric disorders,^[35] such as infant autistic patients.^[36] Another study indicated that paranoid violent offenders or those who committed violent behaviour towards family members have higher bufotenin levels in their urine than other violent offenders.^[37]

Legal Status

Bufotenine is regulated as a Schedule I drug (ID number 7403) by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency.^[3] It is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance according to the Criminal Code Regulations of the government of Australia.^[38] The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. ... Since 1973, the DEA has enforced the drug laws in the United States. ...

See also

This is a partial list of Entheogenic substances: Entheogen Ethnobotany Categories: | ... Tryptamine (3-(2-aminoethyl)indole) is a monoamine compound that is widespread in nature. ... Psychoactive toad is a name used for toads from which psychoactive substances from the family of bufotoxins can be derived. ... Binomial name Bufo marinus Linnaeus, 1758 The Giant Neotropical Toad (Bufo marinus) is native to the Americas from southern Texas to northern Argentina. ... Binomial name Girard in Baird, 1859 The Colorado River Toad or Bufo alvarius, also known as the Sonoran Desert Toad, is a psychoactive toad found in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. ... Binomial name (Vell. ... Binomial name Speg. ...

References

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^ ^a ^b ^c DEA Drug Scheduling. U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency. Retrieved on 2007-08-11.
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^ Gowda RM, Cohen RA, Khan, IA (2003). "Toad venom poisoning: resemblance to digoxin toxicity and therapeutic implications". Heart 89: e14.
^ Lever, C. 2001. The Cane Toad: the history and ecology of a successful colonist. Westbury Publishing, West Yorkshire. 230pp.
^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1995). "Deaths associated with a purported aphrodisiac--New York City, February 1993-May 1995". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 44 (46): 853855, 861.
^ The Dog Who Loved to Suck on Toads. NPR. Accessed on May 6, 2007.
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^ Costa TO, Morales RA, Brito JP, Gordo M, Pinto AC, Bloch C Jr. (2005). "Occurrence of bufotenin in the Osteocephalus genus (Anura: Hylidae)". Toxicon 46 (4): 371-375.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant Of Ancient South America By Constantino Manuel Torres, David B. Repke, 2006, ISBN 0789026422
^ ^a ^b Ott, Jonathan (2001), Shamanic Snuffs or Entheogenic Errhines, Entheobotanica, ISBN 1-888755-02-4
^
^ The Role of Cohoba in Taino Shamanism. Constantino M. Torres, in Eleusis No. 1 (1998)
^ Aminita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and Others. IPCS Intox Databank. Retrieved on 2007-08-11.
^ Moretti C, Gaillard Y, Grenand P, Bévalot F, Prévosto JM (2006). "Identification of 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (bufotenine) in takini (Brosimumacutifolium Huber subsp. acutifolium C.C. Berg, Moraceae), a shamanic potion used in the Guiana Plateau". J Ethnopharmacol 106 (2): 198-202.
^ Chamakura RP (1994). "Bufotenine—a hallucinogen in ancient snuff powders of South America and a drug of abuse on the streets of New York City". Forensic Sci Rev 6 (1): 2-18.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Fabing HD, Hawkins, JR (1956). "Intravenous bufotenine injection in the human being.". Science 123 (3203): 886-887.
^ Turner WJ, Merlis S (1959). "Effects of some indolealkylamines on man". Arch Neurol Psychiatr 81: 121-129.
^ McLeod WR, Sitaram BR (1985). "Bufotenine reconsidered". Acta Psychiatr Scand 72 (5): 447-450.
^ Ott J (2001). "Pharmanopo-psychonautics: human intranasal, sublingual, intrarectal, pulmonary and oral pharmacology of bufotenine". J Psychoactive Drugs 33 (4): 403-407.
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^ Bufotenin reconsidered as a diagnostic indicator of psychiatric disorders. PubMed. Accessed on May 6, 2007.
^ Serotonin-degradative pathways in the toad (Bufo bufo japonicus) brain: clues to the pharmacological analysis of human psychiatric disorders. PubMed. Accessed on May 6, 2007. Research has found that high-functioning autism cannot be identified by the urine peptide pattern.
^ Increased urinary excretion of bufotenin by violent offenders with paranoid symptoms and family violence. PubMed. Accessed on May 6, 2007. A follow-up on this study stated that "suspiciousness was positively correlated, and socialization was negatively correlated, with urinary bufotenin excretion" in drug-free offenders. Also, "bufotenin excretion was correlated positively with social desirability and negatively with irritability" in drug-using offenders.
^ (May 1, 2005). "Criminal Code Regulation 2005 (SL2005-2)" (rtf). Australian Capital Territory. Retrieved on August 12, 2007.

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