Cover of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists with the famous Doomsday Clock set at seven minutes to midnight.

The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists is a nontechnical magazine that covers global security and public policy issues, especially related to the dangers posed by nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction. It has been published continuously since 1945, when it was founded by former Manhattan Project physicists after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists of Chicago. The Bulletin's primary aim is to inform the public about nuclear policy debates while advocating for the international control of nuclear energy. Image File history File links Bulletin_Atomic_Scientists_Cover. ... Image File history File links Bulletin_Atomic_Scientists_Cover. ... The Doomsday Clock now stands at five minutes to midnight. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... For the album, see Weapons of Mass Destruction (album). ... The Manhattan Project resulted in the development of the first nuclear weapons, and the first-ever nuclear detonation, at the Trinity test of July 16, 1945. ... Many famous physicists of the 20th and 21st century are found on the list of recipients of the Nobel Prize in physics. ... The Fat Man mushroom cloud resulting from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rises 18 km (11 mi, 60,000 ft) into the air from the hypocenter. ...

One of the driving forces behind the creation of the Bulletin was the amount of public interest surrounding atomic energy at the dawn of the atomic age. In 1945 the public interest in atomic warfare and weaponry inspired contributors to the Bulletin to attempt to inform those interested about the dangers and destruction that atomic war could bring about. ^[1] To convey the particular peril posed by nuclear weapons, the Bulletin devised the Doomsday Clock in 1947. The original setting was seven minutes to midnight. The minute hand of the Clock first moved closer to midnight in response to changing world events in 1949, following the first Soviet nuclear test. The Clock is now recognized as a universal symbol of the nuclear age. In the 1950s, the Bulletin was involved in the formation of Pugwash, an annual conference of scientists concerned about nuclear proliferation, and, more broadly, the role of science in modern society. The Doomsday Clock now stands at five minutes to midnight. ... Year 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... Year 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... Soviet redirects here. ... Pugwash encounter and tour held at the National Accelerator Laboratory, now Fermilab, September 12, 1970. ...

Founders and contributors

The original founder and editor of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists was biophysicist Eugene Rabinowitch (1898 – 1973). He founded the magazine alongside physicist Hyman Goldsmith. Rabinowitch was a professor of botany and biophysics at the University of Illinois and was also a founding member of the Continuing Committee for the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.^[2] In addition to Rabinowitch and Goldsmith contributors have included: Morton Grodzins, Hans Bethe, A.A. Blagonravov, Max Born, Harrison Brown, Brock Chisholm, E.U. Condon, Albert Einstein, E.K. Fedorov, Bernard T. Feld, James Franck, Ralph E. Lapp, Richard S. Leghorn, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Lord Boyd Orr, Michael Polanyi, Louis N. Ridenour, Bertrand Russell, Nikolai N. Semenov, Leo Szilard, Edward Teller, A.V. Topchiev, Harold, C. Urey, Paul Weiss, among many others.^[3] Biophysics (also biological physics) is an interdisciplinary science that applies the theories and methods of physics, to questions of biology. ... Eugene Rabinowitch (1901-1973) was a Russian-American biophysicist who is best known for his work in relation to nuclear weapons, especially as a co-author of the Franck Report and a co-founder in 1945 of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, a global security and public policy magazine... The University of Illinois is the set of three public universities in Illinois. ... Pugwash encounter and tour held at the National Accelerator Laboratory, now Fermilab, September 12, 1970. ... Morton M. Grodzins (born circa 1919, died 7 March 1964) was a professor of political science at the University of Chicago. ... Hans Albrecht Bethe (pronounced bay-tuh; July 2, 1906 – March 6, 2005), was a German-American physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1967 for his work on the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis. ... Max Born (December 11, 1882 in Breslau – January 5, 1970 in Göttingen) was a mathematician and physicist. ... Dr. George Brock Chisholm (May 18, 1896 - February 4, 1971) was a Canadian World War I veteran, medical practitioner and the first Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO). ... Albert Einstein ( ) (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely considered one of the greatest physicists of all time. ... Bernard T. Feld (December 21, 1919 - February 19, 1993) was a professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ... James Franck (August 26, 1882 - May 21, 1964) was a German-born physicist and Nobel laureate. ... J. Robert Oppenheimer, father of the atomic bomb, served as the first director of Los Alamos National Laboratory, beginning in 1943. ... John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron Boyd-Orr (September 23, 1880 - June 25, 1971) was a Scottish doctor and biologist who received the Nobel Peace Prize for his scientific research into nutrition and his work with the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). ... Michael Polanyi (March 11, 1891 - February 22, 1976) was a Hungarian/ British polymath whose thought and work extended across physical chemistry, economics, and philosophy. ... Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell OM FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970), was a British philosopher, logician, and mathematician. ... Leó Szilárd (right) working with Albert Einstein. ... Edward Teller (original Hungarian name Teller Ede) (January 15, 1908 – September 9, 2003) was a Hungarian-born American theoretical physicist, known colloquially as the father of the hydrogen bomb. ... Harold Urey, circa 1963. ... Paul Weiss is a leading nanoscientist at the Pennsylvania State University. ...

In 1949, the Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science incorporated as a not-for-profit 501(c)(3) organization to serve as the parent organization and fundraising mechanism of the Bulletin. In 2003, the Board of Directors voted to officially change the foundation's name to Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 501(c)(3) is a provision of the US tax code that provides exempt status, for Federal income tax purposes, for some non-profit organizations in the United States (see 26 U.S.C. Â§ 501(c)(3)). The term refers to: Section 501. ...

Purpose of the Bulletin

The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an immediate educational program about atomic weapons.^[4] One of the purposes of the Bulletin was to educate fellow scientists about the relationship between their world of science and the world of national and international politics. A second was to help the American people understand what nuclear energy and its possible applications to war meant. The Bulletin contributors believed the atom bomb would only be the first of many dangerous presents from “Pandora’s box of modern science.”^[5] The aim of the Bulletin was to carry out the long, sustained effort of educating man about the realities of the scientific age.

The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists sought to educate citizens, policy makers, scientists, and journalists by providing non-technical, scientifically sound and policy-relevant information about nuclear weapons and other global security issues. ^[6] The Bulletin also serves as a reliable, high-quality global forum for diverse international opinions on the best means of reducing reliance on nuclear weapons. ^[7] Since its inception in 1945, the Bulletin has sought to educate the American public of the continual danger posed by nuclear weapons and other global dangers.

Changing focus of the Bulletin

Throughout the history of the Bulletin there have been many different focuses of the contributors to the Bulletin. In the early years of the Bulletin it was separated into three distinct stages.^[8] These stages, as defined by founder Eugene Rabinowitch in "The Atomic Age" were Failure, Peril, and Fear. The "Failure" stage surrounded the Bulletin's failed attempts to convince the American people that the best and most effective way to control them was to eliminate their use. In the "Peril" stage the contributors focused on warning readers about the dangers of full scale atomic war. In the "Fear" stage the unsuccessful attempts at deterring readers from supporting the disarmament of nuclear weapons led many, including the contributors to the Bulletin to question the patriotism of others.^[9]

"Failure"

Even before the Bulletin was established in December of 1945, there was an effort by the scientists working inside the United States to prevent atomic warfare from ever taking place. These fears and uncertainties about the effects of atomic warfare existed long before the United States dropped the first bomb on Hiroshima. The contributors strongly felt that the best and most effective way to prevent nuclear war was to prevent the use of atomic weapons.^[10] The contributors to the Bulletin insisted that once it was known that the United States possessed atomic weapons, it was important that the control of the nuclear energy be out of the hands of the state.^[11] In one article of the June 1946 Bulletin, written by Robert J. Oppenheimer entitled, “International Control of Atomic Energy,” he examined the idea that non state officials should control atomic energy. He said, “It may be permitted that men who have no qualifications in state-craft concern themselves with the control of atomic energy.”^[12] This period of the Bulletin’s history was coined as the "Failure" stage by Eugene Rabinowitch because the Bulletin's attempt to establish control over atomic weapons was unsuccessful.

"Peril"

While the first stage of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists was labeled as the Failure stage by founder Eugene Rabinowitch, the second stage was labeled Peril. ^[13] Following the Soviet Union’s first atomic test on September 24th, 1949 the focus of the Bulletin shifted to warning against the dangers of full scale atomic war. Once the Soviet Union established that it had atomic capabilities, the arms race began and the danger of atomic war was continually growing. In an article entitled, “The Dangers We Face,” written in the November 1957 issue of the Bulletin, Harrison Brown stated “I believe that we (the United States) are rapidly approaching the time when industrial society will reach a ‘point of no return’ – a point beyond which recovery from major disruption may literally be impossible...”^[14] The dangers of full scale nuclear war were a major concern of the Bulletin contributors and the fear and “Peril” that the they felt was expressed through their writing.

Doomsday Clock

Main article: Doomsday Clock

Once the Soviet Union developed atomic weapons, the concern surrounding the world’s destruction was a great fear of the scientists working on the Bulletin. The proximity of nuclear devastation was a popular interest and as a result the Bulletin scientists developed a symbol of nuclear danger in 1947 known as the “Doomsday Clock.”^[15] The “clock” which only has bullets labeling the numbers in the upper left hand corner has graced the cover of the Bulletin many times since its creation. The proximity of the minute hand to midnight has been the Bulletin contributors’ way of predicting the potential of nuclear war. When it began in 1947, the minute hand was 7 minutes to midnight. In 1953 it was 2 minutes to midnight when the Soviet Union continued to test more and more nuclear devices. ^[16] This proximity to midnight of the “Doomsday Clock” during the early 1950s shows the concern that the Bulletin contributors had about the Soviet Union and the arms race. The warnings of the Bulletin continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s and the focus of the efforts shifted slightly from warning about the dangers of nuclear war to the necessity of disarmament. Throughout the history of the “Doomsday Clock” it has moved closer to midnight and farther away depending status of the world at that time. ^[17] As of January 17, 2007, the clock stands at 5 minutes to midnight because of "the perils of 27,000 nuclear weapons, 2000 of them ready to launch within minutes; and the destruction of human habitats from climate change." The Doomsday Clock now stands at five minutes to midnight. ... January 17 is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

"Fear"

As the United States and Soviet Union continued to develop more nuclear weapons it was obvious that the best way to secure world safety was to disarm, deter and control the arms.^[18] The "Peril" stage was relatively unsuccessful in deterring the United States from ending the nuclear arms race and as a result the next stage coined by Rabinowitch as "Fear" set in. During this time period many people were suspicious of others for not being patriotic Americans and these issues were an interest of the Bulletin for some time. The issues of foreign espionage, loyalty, and security were all main topics of discussion for the Bulletin in the early arms race years.^[19]

Throughout all of these times there were also discussions in the Bulletin of the applications of nuclear energy as a possible harvestable energy source. Today this has become a larger focal point of the Bulletin as nuclear energy a large role in fulfilling the world's energy need. With the understanding that the world’s resources were depleting, many scientists described the pros and cons of using nuclear energy as an alternative to those that were already in use.^[20]

The Bulletin today

In more recent years articles of the Bulletin have focused on many topics ranging from the dangers of radiation following the Chernobyl incident to the impact of the fall of the Soviet Union. In the wake of the Soviet Union's collapse other articles have focused on things such as military spending. The cover story of the May/June 1998 issue entitled Plain Crazy: The Joint Strike Fighter Story discussed the development of a new set of military fighter jets that could "blow a hole in the attempt to create a leaner Post-Cold War military." ^[21]. With the ever growing number of nuclear power plants and the demand for nuclear energy, the Bulletin has focused a great deal on the dangers and problems surrounding nuclear energy. One such focal point was the Chernobyl accident and its aftermath in the 1980s. ^[22] Although the arms race and the Cold War, which was a focus of the Bulletin for many of the earlier years, is no longer going on, the Bulletin still focuses on the nuclear dangers that exist in the world today. As more countries such as Pakistan and India have tested nuclear weapons, the Bulletin has focused on the dangers that are being posed by these countries. One article written in August of 1992 by David Albright and Mark Hibbs discussed Pakistan’s bomb development and how after the demise of the Soviet Union, other nations such as Pakistan were beginning to develop nuclear programs.^[23]

Even more recently there have been articles written about the threat of North Korea. In an article written for the January/ February of 2002 issue of the Bulletin, David Albright and Holly Higgins addressed the threat of North Korea and the many dangers that could result from the poor relationship between North Korea and the rest of the world.^[24] The potential dangers of nuclear weapons and energy as well as military and political developments in the Post-Cold War world has been the focus of the Bulletin in the most recent years.

The Bulletin sponsors the Leonard M. Rieser Fellowship in Science, Technology, and Global Security, which provides one-time awards of $2,500-$5,000 to undergraduate students seeking to explore the connections between science, technology, global security, and public policy.

The current Executive Director and Editor of The Bulletin are Kennette Benedict and Mark Strauss respectively. Kennette Benedict is the Executive Director of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. ... Mark Strauss is an American journalist. ...

There is an announcement scheduled for Jan 17th, 2007^[25] (see also Online Archive) reportedly to include a website reorganization and moving the minute hand "reflecting worsening nuclear, climate threats to world". Attendees at the news conference reportedly include - ^[26][27]

• Stephen Hawking, professor of mathematics at the University of Cambridge, and a fellow of The Royal Society;
• Kennette Benedict, executive director, Bulletin of Atomic Scientists;
• Sir Martin Rees, President of The Royal Society, Master of Trinity College and Professor of Cosmology and Astrophysics at Cambridge.
• Lawrence M. Krauss, professor of physics and astronomy at Case Western Reserve University; and
• Ambassador Thomas Pickering, a BAS director and co-chair of the International Crisis Group

The Doomsday Clock has been getting closer to midnight since 1991 when it was set to 17 minutes to midnight after the superpowers reached agreement on a nuclear arms reductions.^[26] Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS (born 8 January 1942) is an English theoretical physicist. ... The University of Cambridge, located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world, with a reputation as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. ... The Royal Society of London is claimed to be the oldest learned society still in existence and was founded in 1660. ... Kennette Benedict is the Executive Director of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. ... The Right Honourable Martin John Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow, FRS (born 23 June 1942) is a professor of astronomy. ... Full name The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity Motto Virtus vera nobilitas Virtue is true Nobility Named after The Holy Trinity Previous names King’s Hall and Michaelhouse (until merged in 1546) Established 1546 Sister College(s) Christ Church Master The Lord Rees of Ludlow Location Trinity Street... Lawrence M. Krauss Lawrence M. Krauss (born May 27, 1954) is Professor of Physics, Professor of Astronomy, and former Chair of the Physics Department at Case Western Reserve University. ... Case Western Reserve University is a private research university located in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, with some residence halls on the south end of campus located in Cleveland Heights. ... Thomas Pickering may refer to: Blessed Thomas Pickering (c. ... The International Crisis Group is an international, non-profit, non-governmental organization whose mission is to prevent and resolve deadly conflicts through field-based analysis and high-level advocacy. ... The Doomsday Clock now stands at five minutes to midnight. ...

See also

• University of Chicago
• Franck Report
• Eugene Rabinowitch
• Kennette Benedict
• Doomsday Clock
• Nuclear weapon
• Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs

The University of Chicago is a private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. ... The Franck Report of June 1945, named for James Franck, recommended that the US either a) keep its atomic discoveries secret for an indefinite time, or b) develop nuclear armaments at such a pace that no other nation would think of attacking first from fear of overwhelming retaliation. ... Eugene Rabinowitch (1901-1973) was a Russian-American biophysicist who is best known for his work in relation to nuclear weapons, especially as a co-author of the Franck Report and a co-founder in 1945 of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, a global security and public policy magazine... Kennette Benedict is the Executive Director of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. ... The Doomsday Clock now stands at five minutes to midnight. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 kilometers (11 mi) above the hypocenter. ... Pugwash encounter and tour held at the National Accelerator Laboratory, now Fermilab, September 12, 1970. ...

Notes and references

The records of the Bulletin are kept at the Special Collections Research Center of the University of Chicago Library. The University of Chicago is a private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. ...

External links

• Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (online edition)
• Doomsday Clock
• University of Chicago Library Special Collections - Exhibit commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the world's first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.