Burakumin (部落民: buraku, community or hamlet + min, people), or hisabetsu buraku (被差別部落 "discriminated communities / discriminated hamlets") are a Japanese social minority group. The burakumin are one of the main minority groups in Japan, along with the Ainu of Hokkaido and residents of Korean and Chinese descent. A minority or subordinate group is a sociological group that does not constitute a politically dominant plurality of the total population of a given society. ... The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article Japan#Demographics. ... The Ainu IPA: /?ajnu/) are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaido and north of Honshu in Northern Japan, the Kuril Islands, much of Sakhalin, and the southernmost third of the Kamchatka peninsula. ... For the dog breed, see Hokkaido (dog). ... Zainichi Koreans (Japanese: 在日朝鮮人 Zainichi Chōsenjin; Korean: 재일조선인 Jaeil Joseonin) are the permanent ethnic Korean residents of Japan. ...

They are communities of descendants of outcast communities of the feudal era, which mainly comprise those with occupations considered "tainted" with death or ritual impurity (such as executioners, undertakers or leather workers) and traditionally lived in their own secluded hamlets and ghettos. They were legally liberated in 1871 with the abolition of the feudal caste system, however this did not put a stop to social discrimination and their lower living standards. In certain areas of Japan, there is still a stigma attached to being a resident of such areas, who sometimes face lingering discrimination in matters such as marriage.

The long history of taboos and myths of the buraku left a continuous legacy of social desolation. Since the 1980's, more and more young buraku started to organize and protest against social misfortunes of the buraku. Movements with objectives ranging from "liberation" to encouraging integration have tried over the years to put a stop to this problem. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Current Numbers

The number of burakumin asserted to be living in modern Japan varies from source to source. A 1993 investigation report by the Japanese Government counted 4,533 dōwa chiku (同和地区 "assimilation districts" - buraku communities officially designated for assimilation projects), mostly in western Japan, comprising of 298,385 households with 892,751 residents. The size of each community ranged from under 5 households to over 1000, with 155 household being the average size. About three quarters of settlements are in rural areas. The distribution of discriminated communities varied greatly from region to region. No discriminated communities were identified in the following prefectures: Hokkaido, Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi, Akita, Yamagata, Fukushima, Tōkyō, Toyama, Ishikawa and Okinawa. ([1]in Japanese). 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article Japan#Government and politics. ... For the dog breed, see Hokkaido (dog). ... Aomori Waterfront Aomori (青森市; Aomori-shi) is the capital city of Aomori Prefecture (青森県; Aomori-ken), the north end of HonshÅ«. The city faces Mutsu Bay connecting Tsugaru Channel and the Hakkoda Mountains lie in the southern part of Aomori. ... Iwate Prefecture (岩手県; Iwate-ken) is located in the Tohoku region on Honshu island, Japan. ... Miyagi is a place name in Japan. ... Akita (秋田, autumn ricefield) is a Japanese surname and the name of serveral places. ... Yamagata is the name of several places: Yamagata Prefecture Yamagata City, Yamagata Prefecture, Japan Yamagata City, Gifu Prefecture, Japan Yamagata, a village located in Higashichikuma District, Nagano, Japan. ... Fukushima may refer to: Fukushima, Fukushima Fukushima Prefecture Fukushima, Hokkaido Fukushima, Matsumae, Hokkaido This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The modern skyline of Tokyo is highly decentralized. ... Toyama (富山市; -shi) is the capital city of Toyama Prefecture, Japan. ... Ishikawa (石川 rocky river) is a Japanese surname, and the name of several places in Japan, primarily Ishikawa Prefecture. ... This article is about the prefecture. ...

The Buraku Liberation League, on the other hand, extrapolates Meiji-era figures to arrive at an estimate of nearly three million burakumin. [2] A 1999 source indicates the presence of some 2 million burakumin, living in approximately 5,000 settlements. [3] In some areas, burakumin hold a majority; they account for over 70 percent of all residents of Yoshikawa in Kochi Prefecture. In Ōtō in Fukuoka Prefecture, they account for over 60 percent. 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Old Farts by the Sometimes-United Nations. ... Yoshikawa (吉川村; -mura) is a village located in Kami District, Kochi, Japan. ... Kōchi Prefecture ) is located on the south coast of Shikoku, Japan. ... Fukuoka Prefecture ) is located on KyÅ«shÅ« Island, Japan. ...

Japanese government statistics show the number of residents of assimilation districts who claim buraku ancestry, whereas BLL figures are estimates of the total number of descendants of all former and current buraku residents, including current residents with no buraku ancestry.

Terminology

The term 部落 buraku literally refers to a small, generally rural, commune or a hamlet. People from regions of Japan where "discriminated communities" do not exist any more (e.g anywhere north of Tokyo) may normally refer to any hamlet as a buraku, indicating that the word's usage is not necessarily pejorative. Rural area in Dalarna, Sweden Qichun, a rural town in Hubei province, China Rural areas are sparsely settled places away from the influence of large cities and towns. ... A commune is an administrative subdivision of various European and African countries, including Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Poland, Romania, Senegal, and the Scandinavian countries. ... The third quarto of Hamlet (1605); a straight reprint of the 2nd quarto (1604) The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark is a tragedy by William Shakespeare and is one of his best-known and most-quoted plays. ...

Hisabetsu-buraku (被差別部落 "discriminated community/hamlet") is a commonly used term, with people from them called hisabetsu-burakumin (被差別部落民 "discriminated community (hamlet) people") or hisabetsu buraku shusshin-sha (被差別部落出身者 "person from a discriminated community / hamlet").

Burakumin (部落民 "hamlet people") is actually an abbreviation and therefore its use in the Japanese language is sometimes frowned upon, although it is by far the most commonly used term in English.

Mikaihō-buraku (未開放部落 "unliberated communities" ) is a term sometimes used by human rights pressure groups and the one which has a degree of political ring to it.

A widely used term for buraku settlements is dōwa chiku (同和地区 "assimilation districts"), an official term for districts designated for government and local authority assimilation projects .

Tokushu buraku (特殊部落 "special hamlets") was used in the early 20th Century but is now considered inappropriate.

In the feudal era, the outcast caste were called eta (穢多, literally, "full of filth"), a term now obviously considered derogatory.

Some burakumin refer to their own communities as "mura" (村 "villages") and themselves as "mura-no-mono" (村の者 "village people").

Historical origins

The word burakumin is used to describe descendants of outcaste communities in feudal Japan, most of them being eta (穢多) who worked in occupations relating to death, such as executioners, undertakers or leather workers. Severe social stigma was attached to these occupations, influenced by Buddhist prohibitions against killing and Shinto notions of kegare (穢れ "taint"). Other outcast groups included the hinin (非人). The definition of hinin, as well as their social status and typical occupations varied over time, but typically included ex-convicts and vagrants who worked as town guards, street cleaners or entertainers. A judicial executioner is a person who carries out a death sentence ordered by the state or other legal authority, which was known in feudal terminology as high justice. ... This article is about the vocation of a mortician and the death metal band; for the World Wrestling Entertainment superstar, see The Undertaker. ... Modern leather-working tools Leather is a material created through the tanning of hides, pelts and skins of animals, primarily cows. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

According to Japan, a Modern History, 2002: (cited here [4]),

Fundamental Shinto beliefs equated goodness and godliness with purity and cleanliness, and they further held that impurities could cling to things and persons, making them evil or sinful...But a person could become seriously contaminated by habitually killing animals or committing some hideous misdeed that ripped at the fabric of the community, such as engaging in incest or bestiality. Such persons, custom decreed, had to be cast out from the rest of society, condemned to wander from place to place, surviving as best they could by begging or by earning a few coins as itinerant singers, dancers, mimes, and acrobats.

There are many theories as to how and in which era the outcaste communities came into existence. For example, whether society started ostracising those who worked in tainted occupations, or if those who originally dropped out of society were forced to work in tainted occupations, is disputed. The social status and typical occupations of outcaste communities also varied considerably according to region and over time.

At the start of the Edo period (1603-1867), the caste system was officially established as a means of designating social hierarchy, and eta were placed at the lowest level, outside of the four main divisions of society. Like the rest of the population, they were bound by sumptuary laws based on the inheritance of their social class, The eta lived in segregated settlements, and were generally avoided by the rest of Japanese society. Segregation and discrimination were encouraged by the authorities as a means of government control. For example, they typically had their own temples and were not allowed to visit other religious sites. Japanese Buddhists were given posthumous religious names (戒名 kaimyo) when they were deceased; eta were often given names that included the kanji characters for beast, humble, ignoble, servant, and other derogatory expressions.[5] When dealing with members of other castes, they were expected to display signs of subservience, such as the removal of headwear. In an 1859 court case described by author Shimazaki Toson, a magistrate declared that "An eta is worth 1/7 of an ordinary person." The Edo period (Japanese: 江戸時代, Edo-jidai), also called Tokugawa period, is a division of Japanese history running from 1603 to 1867. ... The four divisions of society refers to the model of Japanese society during the Edo period. ... Sumptuary laws (from the Latin sumtuariae leges) are laws which dictated, amongst other things, what color and type of clothing individuals were allowed to own and wear. ... Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... Geographical segregation exists whenever the proportions of population rates of two or more populations are not homogenous throughout a defined space. ... Japanese writing Kanji Kana Hiragana Katakana Hentaigana Manyogana Uses Furigana Okurigana Rōmaji Kanji (Japanese: ) are the Chinese characters that are used in the modern Japanese logographic writing system along with hiragana (平仮名), katakana (片仮名), and the arabic numerals. ... Headgear, headwear or headdress is the name given to any element of clothing which is worn on ones head. ... 1859 (MDCCCLIX) is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar). ... Shimazaki Toson (島崎 藤村 Shimazaki Tōson, March 25, 1872-August 22, 1943) is a Japanese author of the Meiji and early Showa Eras. ...

Historically, eta were not liable for taxation in feudal times, including the Tokugawa period, because the taxation system was based on rice yields, which they were not permitted to possess. Some outcastes were also called kawaramono (河原者, "dried-up riverbed people") because they lived along river banks that could not be turned into rice fields. Since their undesirable status afforded them an effective monopoly in their trades, some succeeded economically and even occasionally obtained samurai status through marrying or the outright purchase of troubled houses. Some historians point out that such exclusive rights originated in ancient times, granted by shrines, temples, kuge, or the imperial court, which held authority before the Shogunate system was established. The Tokugawa shogunate or Tokugawa bakufu (徳川幕府) (also known as the Edo bakufu) was a feudal military dictatorship of Japan established in 1603 by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family until 1868. ... Japanese samurai in armour, 1860s. ... The kuge (公家) was a Japanese aristocratic class that dominated the Japanese imperial court in Kyoto until the rise of the Shogunate in the 12th century at which point it was eclipsed by the daimyo. ... This page is about the Japanese ruler and military rank. ...

End of feudal era

The feudal caste system in Japan ended in 1869 with the Meiji restoration, and in 1871 the newly formed Meiji government issued a decree called kaihorei(解放令 "Emancipation Edict") giving outcastes equal legal status. However, the elimination of economic monopolies which they had over certain occupations actually led to a decline in their general living standards, while social discrimination simply continued. For example, the ban on consumption of meat from livestock was lifted in 1871 in order to "westernise" the country, and many former eta moved on to work in abbatoirs and as butchers. However, slow-changing social attitudes, especially in the countryside, meant that abbatoirs and workers were met with hostility from local residents. Continued ostracisation as well as the decline in living standards led to former eta communities turning into slum areas. 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... The Meiji Restoration ), also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, or Renewal, was a chain of events that led to a change in Japans political and social structure. ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... History of Japan Paleolithic Jomon Yayoi Yamato period ---Kofun period ---Asuka period Nara period Heian period Kamakura period Muromachi period Azuchi-Momoyama period ---Nanban period Edo period Meiji period Taisho period Showa period ---Japanese expansionism ---Occupied Japan ---Post-Occupation Japan Heisei The Meiji period (Japanese: Meiji Jidai 明治&#26178... Workers and cattle in a slaughterhouse. ... Butcher shop in Valencia A butcher is someone who prepares various meats and other related goods for sale. ...

There were many terms used to indicate former outcasts, their communities or settlements at the time. Official documents at the time referred to them as kyu-eta (旧穢多 "former eta"), while the newly liberated outcastes called themselves shin-heimin(新平民"new citizens"), amongst others. The term tokushu buraku (特殊部落 "special hamlets", now considered inappropriate) started being used by officials in 1900's, leading to the meaning of the word buraku ("hamlet") coming to imply former eta villages in certain parts of Japan.

Movements to resolve the problem in the early 20th century were divided into two camps: the "assimilation" movement which encouraged improvements in living standards of buraku communities and integration with the mainstream Japanese society, and the "suiheisha (levellers)" movement which concentrated on confronting and criticising alleged perpetrators of discrimination.

Post-war situation

Whereas in many parts of the country buraku settlements, built on the site of former eta villages, ceased to exist by the 1960's either by urban development or by integration into mainstream society, in other regions many continued to suffer from slum-like housing and infrastructure, and lower economic status, literacy and general educational standards amongst residents. In 1969, the government passed the Special Measures Law for Assimilation Projects to provide funding to these communities. Communities deemed to be in need of funding were designated for various Assimilation Projects (同和対策事業dōwa taisaku jigyō), such as construction of new housing and community facilities such as health centres, libraries and swimming pools. The projects were terminated in 2002 with a total funding of an estimated 12 trillion yen over 33 years, with the living standards issue effectively resolved.

However, cases of social discrimination against residents of buraku areas is still an issue in certain regions. Outside of the Kansai region, people in general are often not even aware of the issue, and if they are, usually only as part of feudal history. Due to the taboo nature of the topic it is rarely covered by the media, and people from eastern Japan, for example, are often shocked when they learn that it is a continuing issue. The Kansai (Japanese: 関西) region of Japan, also known as the Kinki region (近畿地方, Kinki-chihō), lies in the Southern-Central region of Japans main island, Honshu. ...

Cases of continuing social discrimination are known to occur mainly in western Japan, particularly Osaka, Kyōto, Hyōgo and Hiroshima regions, where many people, especially the older generation, stereotype buraku residents (whatever their ancestry ) with associations with squalor, unemployment and criminality. [6]. (According to David E. Kaplan and Alec Dubro in Yakuza: The Explosive Account of Japan's Criminal Underworld (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1986), burakumin account for about 70 percent of the members of Yamaguchi-gumi, the biggest yakuza syndicate in Japan. Mitsuhiro Suganuma, the ex-member of Public Security Intelligence Agency, testified that burakumin account for about 60 percent of the members of the entire yakuza [7].) The prejudice most often manifests itself in the form of marriage discrimination, and less often, in employment. Traditionalist families have been known to check on the backgrounds of potential in-laws to identify people of buraku background. These checks are now illegal, and marriage discrimination is diminishing; Nadamoto Masahisa of the Buraku History Institute estimates that between 60 and 80% of burakumin marry a non-burakumin, whereas for people in their sixties, the rate was 10% [8]. Osaka ) is the capital of Osaka Prefecture and the third-largest city in Japan, with a population of 2. ... This page is about the city Kyoto. ... Hyōgo Prefecture (兵庫県 Hyōgo-ken) is located in the Kinki region on Honshu island, Japan. ... For other uses, see Hiroshima (disambiguation). ... David Kaplan is a scholar of new religious movements, among other things. ... The Sixth Yamaguchi-gumi (Japanese: 六代目山口組 Rokudaime Yamaguchi-gumi) is Japans largest and most famous yakuza organization. ... This article or section may be confusing or unclear for some readers, and should be edited to rectify this. ...

The "Tokushu Buraku Chimei Soukan" Incident

In November 1975, the Osaka branch of the Buraku Liberation League were tipped off about an existence of a book called "A Comprehensive List of Buraku Area Names" (特殊部落地名総鑑 Tokushu Buraku Chimei Soukan). Investigations revealed that copies of the hand-written 330-page book were being secretly sold by an Osaka based firm to numerous firms and individuals throughout Japan by a mail order service called Cablenet, at between ¥5,000 and ¥50,000 per copy. The book contains a nationwide list of all the names and locations of buraku settlements (as well as the primary means of employment of their inhabitants) which could be compared against an individual's address to determine if they are buraku residents.

The preface contained the following message: "At this time, we have decided to go against public opinion and create this book [for] personnel managers grappling with employment issues, and families pained by problems with their children's marriages." More than 200 large Japanese firms, including (according to the Buraku Liberation and Human Rights Research Centre of Osaka) Toyota, Nissan, Honda and Daihatsu, and thousands of individuals, purchased copies of the book.

In 1985, partially in response to the popularity of this book, and an increase in mimoto chōsa (身元調査, private investigation into one's background) the Osaka prefectural government introduced "An Ordinance to Regulate Personal Background Investigation Conducive to Buraku Discrimination".

Although the production and sale of the book has been banned, numerous copies of it are still in existence, and in 1997, an Osaka private investigation firm was the first to be charged with violation of the 1985 statute for using the text. It is not unlikely that more of Japan's highly-lucrative private investigation market still enjoys ownership of the book.

Burakumin rights movement

As early as 1922, leaders of the hisabetsu buraku organized a movement, the "Levelers Association of Japan" (Suiheisha), to advance their rights. The Declaration of the Suiheisha encouraged the Burakumin to unite in resistance to discrimination, and sought to frame a positive identity for the victims of discrimination, insisting that the time had come to be "proud of being eta. The declaration portrayed the Burakumin ancestors as "manly martyrs of industry." To submit meekly to oppression would be to insult and profane these ancestors. Despite internal divisions among anarchist, Bolshevik, and social democratic factions, and despite the Japanese government's establishment of an alternate organization Yūma movement, designed to undercut the influence of the Suheisha, the Levelers Association remained active until the late 1930s. 1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

After World War II, the National Committee for Burakumin Liberation was founded, changing its name to the Buraku Liberation League (Buraku Kaihou Doumei) in the 1950s. The league, with the support of the socialist and communist parties, pressured the government into making important concessions in the late 1960s and 1970s. One concession was the passing of the Special Measures Law for Assimilation Projects, which provided financial aid for the discriminated communities. Also, in 1976, legislation was put in place which banned third parties from looking up another person's family registery (koseki). This traditional system of registry, kept for all Japanese by the Ministry of Justice since the 19th century, would reveal an individual's buraku ancestry if looked up. Under the new legislation, these records could now be consulted only in legal cases, making it more difficult to identify or discriminate against members of the group. Combatants Major Allied powers: United Kingdom Soviet Union United States Republic of China and others Major Axis powers: Nazi Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry Truman Chiang Kai-Shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead... Buraku Liberation League (部落解放同盟, Buraku Kaihou Doumei) is one of the burakumins rights groups in Japan. ... The Japan Socialist Party (日本社会党) (in Japanese Nihon Shakai-to) was a former Japanese political party with a socialist, left-wing ideology, which functioned between 1945 and 1996. ... The Japanese Communist Party (JCP) (日本共産党), in Japanese known as Nihon Kyōsan-tō is a political party of Japan based on communism. ... A koseki (戸籍) is a family registry. ... Categories: Government of Japan | Stub ...

Even into the early 1990s, however, discussion of the 'liberation' of these discriminated communities, or even their existence, was taboo in public discussion. In the 1960s, the Sayama incident (狭山事件), which involved a murder conviction of a member of the discriminated communities based on circumstantial evidence, focused public attention on the problems of the group. In the 1980s, some educators and local governments, particularly in areas with relatively large hisabetsu buraku populations, began special education programs, which they hoped would encourage greater educational and economic success for young members of the group and decrease the discrimination they faced.

Branches of burakumin rights groups exist today in all parts of Japan except for Hokkaido and Okinawa. For the dog breed, see Hokkaido (dog). ... This article is about the prefecture. ...

"Human Rights Promotion Centers" (人権啓発センター) have been set up across the country by prefectural governments and local authorities; these, in addition to promoting burakumin rights, campaign on behalf of a wide range of groups such as women, the disabled, ethnic minorities, foreign residents and released prisoners. (The term "human rights" (人権 jinken) usually has a different meaning in Japan as it does in the English speaking world. Where in English the term is most often used in reference to protecting people against violations by, for example, the criminal justice system or an oppressive regime, in Japan it is most often used in reference to equality and discrimination issues.)

The Buraku Liberation League and the Zenkairen

The Buraku Liberation League is considered one of the most militant among burakumin's rights groups. The BLL is known for its fierce "denunciation and explanation sessions", where alleged perpetrators of discriminatory actions or speech are summoned for a public hearing before a panel of activists. Early sessions were marked by occasions of violence and kidnapping, and several BLL activists have been arrested for such acts. The legality of these sessions is still disputed, but to this date the authorities have mostly turned a blind eye to them except in the more extreme cases. Buraku Liberation League (部落解放同盟, Buraku Kaihou Doumei) is one of the burakumins rights groups in Japan. ...

In 1990, Karel van Wolferen's criticism of the BLL in his much-acclaimed book The Enigma of Japanese Power prompted the BLL to demand the publisher halt publication of the Japanese translation of the book. Van Wolferen condemned this as an international scandal. This article needs to be wikified. ...

The other major buraku activist group is the All Japan Federation of Buraku Liberation Movements (全国部落解放運動連合会 zenkoku buraku kaihō undō rengōkai, or Zenkairen), affiliated to the Japanese Communist Party(JCP). It was formed in the late 1960's by BLL activists who were purged from the organisation due to their opposition to the decision that subsidies to the burakumin should be limited to the BLL members only. (Not all burakumin were BLL members.) The Japanese Communist Party (JCP) (日本共産党), in Japanese known as Nihon Kyōsan-tō is a political party of Japan based on communism. ...

The Zenkairen often came head-to-head with the BLL, accusing them of chauvinism. The bickering between the two organisations boiled over in 1974 when a clash between teachers belonging to a JCP-affiliated union and BLL activists at a high school in Yoka, rural Hyogo Prefecture put 29 in hospital. Hyōgo Prefecture (兵庫県 Hyōgo-ken) is located in the Kinki region on Honshu island, Japan. ...

In 1988, the BLL formed the International Movement Against All Forms of Discrimination and Racism (IMADR). The BLL sought for the IMADR to be recognized as a United Nations Non-Government Organization, but in 1991, the Zenkairen informed the United Nations about the alleged crimes the BLL had committed. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, and social equity. ... The term non-governmental organization (NGO) is used in a variety of ways all over the world and, depending on the context in which it is used, can refer to many different types of organizations. ... The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, and social equity. ...

However, when suspected cases of discrimination were uncovered, the Zenkairen often conducted denunciation sessions as fierce as those of the BLL.

In 2004, the Zenkairen ceased all campagning activity and effectively disbanded after announcing that "the buraku issue has basically been resolved".

Religious discrimination against burakumin

While nearly all Japanese Buddhist sects have discriminated against the burakumin, the case of the Jōdo Shinshu Honganji Sect is a particularly bitter and ironic one. The original ideology of the sect, as propounded by its founder Shinran, was anti-discriminatory, rejecting the need to keep the traditional Buddhist precepts or to carry out the purification rituals of indigenous Japanese religion. As such butchers, fishermen, and so on, who had all been discriminated against by the older sects, were welcomed into the Jodo Shinshu. Honden, or main hall, of Higashi Honganji, Kyoto Honganji (本願寺, ) is a term that has been used to refer to a number of Buddhist temples across Japans history. ... Shinran Shonin (親鸞聖人) (1173-1263) was a pupil of Honen and the founder of the Jodo Shinshu (or True Pure Land) sect in Japan. ...

The side-effect of this liberating ideology, however, was that it led to a series of anti-feudal rebellions, known as the Ikkō-ikki revolts, which seriously threatened the religious and political status-quo. As such the political powers engineered a situation whereby the Jodo Shinshu split into two competing branches, the Shinshu Otani-ha and the Honganji-ha. This had the consequence that the sects moved increasingly away from their anti-feudal position towards a feudal one. The Japanese Ikkō-ikki ), literally single-minded leagues, were mobs of peasant farmers, monks, Shinto priests and local nobles, who rose up against samurai rule in the 15th and 16th centuries. ...

Later the state also forced all people to belong to a specific Buddhist temple according to the formula:

"the imperial family is in Tendai, the peerage is in Shingon, the nobility is in Jōdo (Honen's followers), the Samurai is in Zen, the beggar is in Nichiren, and Shin Buddhists (Shinran's followers) are at the bottom." (Kasahara 1996) Tendai (Japanese: 天台宗, Tendai-shÅ«) is a Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism, a descendant of the Chinese Tiantai or Lotus Sutra school. ... Shingon (真言宗) is a major school of Japanese Buddhism, and the most important school of Vajrayana Buddhism outside of the Himalayan region. ... The Buddha Amitabha, 13th century, Kamakura, Japan. ... Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism that places great importance on moment-by-moment awareness and seeing deeply into the nature of things by direct experience. ... Nichiren (日蓮) (February 16, 1222 – October 13, 1282), born Zennichimaro (善日麿), later Zeshō-bō Renchō (是生房蓮長), and finally Nichiren (日蓮), was a Buddhist monk of 13th century Japan. ...

In consequence the Honganji, which under Rennyo's leadership had defiantly accepted the derogatory label of 'the dirty sect' (see Rennyo's letters known as the Ofumi / Gobunsho) now began to discriminate against its own burakumin members as it jostled for political and social status. Rennyo (蓮如)(1415-1499) was one of the leaders of the Jodo Shinshu sect, and later the Ikko sect of Buddhism, as well as the founder of the Ikko-ikki, mobs of warrior monks, peasants, and farmers, who launched organized attacks on samurai rule. ...

In 1922, when the National Levelers' Association (Zenkoku-suiheisha) was founded in Kyoto, Mankichi Saiko, a founder of the movement and Jodo Shinshu priest, said:

"We shouldn't disgrace our ancestors and violate humanity by our harsh words and terrible actions. We, who know how cold the human world is, and how to take care of humanity, can seek and rejoice from the bottom of our hearts in the warmth and light of human life."[9]

The fact of religious discrimination against the burakumin was commonly denied until the late twentieth century. For example, in 1979 the Director-General of the Soto Sect of Buddhism made a speech at the "3rd World Conference on Religion and Peace" claiming that there was no longer any discrimination against burakumin in Japan.[10]. For the vegetable, see Celosia. ...

Finally in 1969 the Honganji began to recognise its mistreatment of burakumin and appears to be beginning to address the problem.[11].

Burakumin in film and fiction

In High and Low (Japanese title 天国と地獄 Tengoku to jigoku, literally "Heaven and Hell") [12], a movie adapted in 1963 from Evan Hunter's King's Ransom, Akira Kurosawa made a political statement by having the main character work as a shoe industry executive who rose from humble origins as a simple leather worker, clearly implying (to Japanese audiences) the main character's burakumin status. The story has the main character selflessly sacrifice his fortune in order to save his driver's son, showing that burakumin are as heroic as anyone else^{[citation needed]}. High and Low (天国と地獄, Tengoku to jigoku, literally Heaven and Hell) is a 1963 film directed by Akira Kurosawa It tells the story of an executive named Kingo Gondo Toshirô Mifune who mortgages all he has to stage leveraged buyout and gain control of the National Shoe Company, with the intent... 1963 (MCMLXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (the link is to a full 1963 calendar). ... Evan Hunter, born Salvatore Lombino (October 15, 1926 - July 6, 2005), was a prolific American author and screenwriter. ... Kurosawa redirects here. ...

The plight of the burakumin has also been presented in Hashi no nai kawa [13] (橋のない川 "The River With No Bridge") a novel by Sue Sumii (住井 すゑ), which received several film adaptations, in 1969, 1970 and 1992. The title refers to the fact that areas in which burakumin lived were often separated by a river, but bridges to cross were rarely constructed. 1969 (MCMLXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1969 calendar). ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1970 calendar). ... 1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday. ...

Author Lian Hearn depicts a fictional feudal country highly similar to that of Japan's own history in the three-book series Tales of the Otori (2003-2004). The series depicts a caste system wherein "untouchables" live outside of mainstream society. The protagonist develops a friendship with one such outcast, a tanner who lives and works with other tanners in riverside settlements. Lian Hearn, psudonym used by Australian author Gillian Rubinstein for her Tales of the Otori novels. ... Tales of the Otori is a trilogy of fantasy novels by Lian Hearn, set in a fictional world based on feudal Japan. ...

See also

• Baekjeong, the former outcaste community of Korean society
• Dalit, the outcaste community of India and Nepal
• Roma of Europe, commonly known as Gypsies in English
• The Pavee, the "itinerant community" of Ireland and Britain
• Ainu, the second largest minority group in Japan.

The baekjeong were an “untouchable” outcaste group of Korea, often compared with the burakumin of Japan and the dalits of India and Nepal. ... In South Asias caste system, a Dalit; often called an untouchable; is a person of shudra; the lowest of the four castes. ... This article is becoming very long. ... Irish Travellers are a nomadic or itinerant people of Irish origin living in Ireland, Great Britain and the United States. ... The Ainu IPA: /?ajnu/) are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaido and north of Honshu in Northern Japan, the Kuril Islands, much of Sakhalin, and the southernmost third of the Kamchatka peninsula. ...

External links

• The Headquarters of Buraku Liberation League
• Burakumin: Definition of Burakumin - See also links section at page bottom
• The Burakumin: The Complicity of Japanese Buddhism in Oppression and an Opportunity for Liberation
• Cooperativeness and Buraku Discrimination, discussion paper by Takuya Ito in the electronic journal of contemporary Japanese studies, 31 October 2005.
• Solving Anti-Burakujūmin Prejudice in the 21st Century: Suggestions from 21 Buraku Residents, discussion paper by Alastair McLauchlan in the electronic journal of contemporary Japanese studies, 31 January 2003.

October 31 is the 304th day of the year (305th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 61 days remaining. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... January 31 is the 31st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

References

• Shimazaki Toson, The Broken Commandment
• Toshinori Kasahara, Shin Buddhism and the Buraku-min (1996 Honolulu Higashi Honganji)
• Alldritt, Leslie D, The Burakumin: The Complicity of Japanese Buddhism in Oppression and an Opportunity for Liberation
• Neary, Ian, "Burakumin in contemporary Japan," in Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homeogeneity, Michael Weiner, ed.

Shimazaki Toson (島崎 藤村 Shimazaki Tōson, March 25, 1872-August 22, 1943) is a Japanese author of the Meiji and early Showa Eras. ...

Credits

Main text originally from Library of Congress, Country Studies. Religious Discrimination and Jodo shinshu Honganji sections adapted from Shindharmanet and BLHRRI.Org.