General definition

Business ethics is the branch of ethics that examines ethical rules and principles within a commercial context; the various moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business setting; and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce. Those who are interested in business ethics examine various kinds of business activities and ask, "Is the conduct ethically right or wrong?" Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the science (study) of morality. In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is good or right. ... Morality is a complex of principles based on cultural, religious, and philosophical concepts and beliefs, by which an individual determines whether his or her actions are right or wrong. ... Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the science (study) of morality. In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is good or right. ... Business refers to at least three closely related commercial topics. ... This article is about the business concept; Commerce is also the name of several places in the United States. ...

Business ethics is a form of applied ethics, a branch of philosophy. As such, it takes the ethical concepts and principles developed at a more theoretical, philosophical level, and applies them to specific business situations. Generally speaking, business ethics is a normative discipline, whereby particular ethical standards are assumed and then applied. It makes specific judgements about what is right or wrong, which is to say, it makes claims about what ought to be done or what ought not to be done. While there are some exceptions, business ethicists are usually less concerned with the foundations of ethics (metaethics), or with justifying the most basic ethical principles, and are more concerned with practical problems and applications, and any specific duties that might apply to business relationships. Applied ethics takes a theory of ethics, such as utilitarianism, social contract theory, or deontology, and applies its major principles to a particular set of circumstances. ... The term philosophy derives from a combination of the Greek words philos meaning love and sophia meaning wisdom. ... In philosophy, ethics is commonly divided into two branches, normative ethics and meta-ethics. ...

Related disciplines

Business ethics aren't identical to the philosophy of business, the branch of philosophy that deals with the philosophical, political, and ethical underpinnings of business and economics. Business ethics operates on the premise, for example, that the ethical operation of a private business is possible -- those who dispute that premise, such as libertarian socialists, do so by definition outside of the domain of business ethics proper. Definition and scope The philosophy of business considers the fundamental principles that underlie the formation and operation of a business enterprise; the nature and purpose of a business, for example, is it primarily property or a social institution; its role in society; and the moral obligations that pertain to it. ... Libertarian socialism is any one of a group of political philosophies dedicated to opposing coercive forms of authority and social hierarchy, in particular the institutions of capitalism and the state. ...

The philosophy of business also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the social responsibilities of a business; business management theory; theories of individualism vs. collectivism; free will among participants in the marketplace; the role of self interest; invisible hand theories; the requirements of social justice; and natural rights, especially property rights, in relation to the business enterprise. Individualism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, belief in the primary importance of the individual and in the virtues of self-reliance and personal independence. ... Collectivism, in general, is a term used to describe a theoretical or practical emphasis on the group, as opposed to (and seen by many of its opponents to be at the expense of) the individual. ... Free will is the philosophical doctrine that holds that our choices are ultimately up to ourselves. ... The Invisible hand is a metaphor created by Adam Smith to illustrate the principle of enlightened self interest. Today this principle is associated with psychological egoism. ... Social Justice is a concept that has fascinated philosophers ever since Plato rebuked the young Sophist, Thrasymachus, for asserting that justice was whatever the strongest decided it would be. ... Human rights are rights which some hold to be inalienable and belonging to all humans. ... This page deals with property as ownership rights. ...

Business ethics is also related to political economy, which is economic analysis from political and historical perspectives. Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions. It asks who gains and who loses from economic activity, and is the resultant distribution fair or just, which are central ethical issues. Political economy was the original term for the study of production and the relationships of buying and selling and their relationship to laws, customs and government. ...

Typical issues in business ethics

While hardly exhaustive, some typical issues addressed in business ethics include:

• accounting and financial standards, and "creative accounting"
• advertising deception
• black market sales
• bribery and kickbacks
• business intelligence and industrial espionage
• political contributions
• competition versus cooperation
• corporate governance, including hostile take-overs, fiduciary responsibility, and shareholder rights issues
• corporate crime, including insider trading, price fixing, and price discrimination
• competitive disinformation
• discrimination, affirmative action, and sexual harassment;
• employee issues, such as rights, duties, illicit drug testing, key employee raiding, and professional conduct
• environmental issues, animal rights (e.g., in agriculture), and related social concerns
• Labor issues such as union strikes and union busting
• Marketing, sales, and negotiation techniques
• Product issues such as patent and copyright enfringement, planned obsolescence, product liability and product defects

Accountancy (British English) or accounting (American English) is the process of maintaining, auditing, and processing financial information for business purposes. ... Finance addresses the ways in which individuals, business entities and other organizations allocate and use monetary resources over time. ... Creative accounting and earnings management are euphemisms referring to accounting practices that deviate from standard accounting practices. ... Generally speaking, advertising is the paid promotion of goods, services, companies and ideas by an identified sponsor. ... Deception is providing intentionally misleading information to others. ... The black market is the sector of economic activity involving illegal economic dealings, typically the buying and selling of merchandise illegally. ... Bribery is the practice of offering a professional money or other favours in order to circumvent ethics in a variety of professions. ... This article is about political corruption. ... Business intelligence (BI) is the process of gathering information in the field of business. ... Industrial espionage is espionage conducted for commercial purposes instead of the usual national security purposes. ... Campaign finance reform is the common term for the political effort in the United States to change the involvement of money in politics, primarily in political campaigns. ... Competition characterises a biochemical, ecologic, economic, political, or sporting activity whereby two or more individuals or groups strive antagonistically against one another for some reward. ... Co-operation refers to the practice of people or greater entities working in common with commonly agreed-upon goals and possibly methods, instead of working separately in competition. ... Corporate governance is the method by which a corporation is directed, administered or controlled. ... A takeover in commerce refers to one company (the acquirer) purchasing another (the target). ... A fiduciary is a person who occupies a position of trust in relation to someone else such that he is required to act for the latters benefit within the scope of that relationship. ... Corporate crime refers to criminal practices by individuals that have the legal authority to speak for a corporation or company. ... There are two kinds of trading that are referred to as insider trading: Trading of a security of a company (, shares or options) based on material nonpublic information. ... Any agreement between business competitors regarding price is considered price fixing and is illegal in many countries. ... Price discrimination exists when sales of identical goods or services are transacted at different prices from the same provider. ... Disinformation, in the context of espionage, military intelligence, and propaganda, is the spreading of deliberately false information to mislead an enemy as to ones position or course of action. ... To discriminate is to make a distinction. ... Affirmative action (US English), or positive discrimination (British English), is a policy or a program providing advantages for people of a minority group who are seen to have traditionally been discriminated against, with the aim of creating a more egalitarian society. ... Sexual harassment is harassment of a sexual nature, typically in the workplace or other setting where raising objections or refusing may have negative consequences. ... Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ... For the direction right, see left and right or starboard. ... This article is in need of attention. ... An environment is a complex of external factors that acts on a system and determines its course and form of existence. ... The Great Ape Project is campaigning for a Declaration on Great Apes. ... A union (labor union in American English; trade union, sometimes trades union, in British English; either labour union or trade union in Canadian English) is a legal entity consisting of employees or workers having a common interest, such as all the assembly workers for one employer, or all the workers... Traditionally, marketing has been a term applied to the craft of linking the producers (or potential producers) of a product or service with customers, both existing and potential. ... Sales, or the activity of selling, forms an integral part of commercial activity. ... Negotiation is the process whereby interested parties resolve disputes, agree upon courses of action, bargain for individual or collective advantage, and/or attempt to craft outcomes which serve their mutual interests. ... A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to a person for a fixed period of time in exchange for the regulated, public disclosure of certain details of a device, method, process or substance (known as an invention) which is new, inventive and useful. ... For copyright issues in relation to Wikipedia itself, see Wikipedia:copyrights. ... Planned obsolescence is the marketing strategy of deliberately introducing obsolescence into a product strategy. ... Product liability encompasses a number of legal claims that allow an injured party to recover financial compensation from the manufacturer or seller of a product. ...

Conflicting interests

Business ethics can be examined from various perspectives, including the perspective of the employee, the commercial enterprise, and society as a whole. Very often, situations arise in which there is conflict between one or more of the parties, such that serving the interest of one party is a detriment to the other(s). For example, a particular outcome might be good for the employee, whereas, it would be bad for the company, society, or vice versa. Some ethicists (e.g., Henry Sidgwick) see the principal role of ethics as the harmonization and reconciliation of conflicting interests.

Some ethical issues and approaches

Philosophers and others disagree about the purpose of a business in society. For example, some suggest that the principal purpose of a business is to maximize returns to its owners, or in the case of a publicly-traded concern, its shareholders. Thus, under this view, only those activities that increase profitability and shareholder value should be encouraged. Some believe that the only companies that are likely to survive in a competitive marketplace are those that place profit maximization above everything else. However, some point out that self interest would still require a business to obey the law and adhere to basic moral rules, because the consequences of failing to do so could be very costly in fines, loss of licensure, or company reputation. The economist Milton Friedman is a leading proponent of this view. Milton Friedman Milton Friedman (born July 31, 1912) is a U.S. economist, known primarily for his work on macroeconomics and for his advocacy of laissez-faire capitalism. ...

Other theorists contend that a business has moral duties that extend well beyond serving the interests of its owners or stockholderes, and that these duties consist of more than simply obeying the law. They believe a business has moral responsibilities to so-called stakeholders, people who have an interest in the conduct of the business, which might include employees, customers, vendors, the local community, or even society as a whole. They would say that stakeholders have certain rights with regard to how the business operates, and some would even suggest that this even includes rights of governance. A stakeholder is a person who holds money or other property while its owner is being determined. ...

Some theorists have adapted social contract theory to business, whereby companies become quasi-democratic associations, and employees and other stakeholders are given voice over a company's operations. This approach has become especially popular subsequent to the revival of contract theory in political philosophy, which is largely due to John Rawls' A Theory of Justice, and the advent of the consensus-oriented approach to solving business problems, an aspect of the "quality movement" that emerged in the 1980s. Philosophers Thomas Donaldson and Thomas Dunfee proposed a version of contract theory for business, which they call Integrative Social Contracts Theory. They posit that conflicting interests are best resolved by formulating a "fair agreement" between the parties, using a combination of i) macro-principles that all rational people would agree upon as universal principles, and, ii) micro-princples formulated by actual agreements among the interested parties. Critics say the proponents of contract theories miss a central point, namely, that a business is someone's property and not a mini-state or a means of distributing social justice. Social contract is a phrase used in philosophy, political science, and sociology to denote a real or hypothetical agreement within a state regarding the rights and responsibilities of the state and its citizens, or more generally a similar concord between a group and its members. ... Political philosophy is the study of the fundamental questions about the state, government, politics, property, law and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should... John Rawls (February 21, 1921 – November 24, 2002) was a philosopher, a professor of political philosophy at Harvard University and author of A Theory of Justice (1971), Political Liberalism, and The Law of Peoples. ... Quality refers to the inherent or distinctive characteristics or properties of a person, object, process or other thing. ...

Ethical issues can arise when companies must comply with multiple and sometimes conflicting legal or cultural standards, as in the case of multinational companies that operate in countries with varying practices. The question arises, for example, ought a company to obey the laws of its home country, or should it follow the less stringent laws of the developing country in which it does business? To illustrate, United States law forbids companies from paying bribes either domestically or overseas; however, in other parts of the world, bribery is a customary, accepted way of doing business. Similar problems can occur with regard to child labor, employee safety, work hours, wages, discrimination, and environmental protection laws.

It is sometimes claimed that a Gresham's law of ethics applies in which bad ethical practices drive out good ethical practices. It is claimed that in a competitive business environment, those companies that survive are the ones that recognize that their only role is to maximize profits. On this view, the competitive system fosters a downward ethical spiral. Greshams law is stated as: Bad money drives good money out of circulation. Greshams law applies specifically when there are two forms of commodity money in circulation which are forced, by the application of legal tender laws, to be respected as having the same face value in the...

Rushworth Kidder developed a facinating way to address ethical conflicts. He calls it a "trilemma". Instead of feeling stuck in a choice between violating your ethics and doing something painful but ethical, he suggests exploring if there is a third, unexplored option.

Corporate ethics policies

Many companies have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees. These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly-generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioral requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). They are generally meant to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is hoped that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters.

An increasing number of companies also requires employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements. Some companies even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company's rules of conduct.

Not everyone supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment.

Others believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns, and that they are mainly to limit the company's legal liability, or to curry public favor by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly.

Sometimes there is disconnection between the company's code of ethics and the company's actual practices. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool.

To be successful, most ethicists would suggest that an ethics policy should be:

• Given the unequivocal support of top management, by both word and by example.
• Explained in writing and orally, with periodic reinforcement.
• Doable....something empoloyees can both understand and perform.
• Monitored by top management, with routine inspections for compliance and improvement.
• Backed up by clearly stated consequences in the case of disobedience.

Ethics officers

Since 2002, many companies have appointed ethics officers. They often report to the Chief Executive Officer and are responsible for assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations regarding the company's ethical policies, and dissiminating information to employees. They are particularly interested in uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions. This trend is partly due to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in the United States, which was enacted in reaction to a number of well-publicized corporate scandals. A related trend is the introduction of risk assessment officers that monitor how shareholders' investments might be affected by the company's decisions. Before the signing ceremony of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, President George W. Bush meets with Senator Paul Sarbanes, Secretary of Labor Elaine Chao and other dignitaries in the Blue Room at the White House July 30, 2002. ...

The effectiveness of ethics officers in the marketplace is not clear. If the appointment is made primarily as a reaction to legislative requirements, one might expect the efficacy to be minimal, at least, over the short term. In part, this is because ethical business practices result from a corporate culture that consistently places value on ethical behavior, a culture and climate that usually eminates from the top of the organization. The mere establishment of a position to oversee ethics will most likely be insufficient to inculcate ethical behaviour: a more systemic programme with consistent support from general management will be necessary.

Obviously, the foundation for ethical behavior goes well beyond corporate culture and the policies of any given company, for it also depends greatly upon an individual's early moral training, the other institutions that affect an individual, the competitive business environment the company is in and, indeed, society as a whole.

Religious views on business ethics

Jewish business ethics

Judaism has an extensive literature and legal code on the accumulation and use of wealth. The basis of these laws is the Torah, where there are more rules about the kashrut (fitness) of one's money than about the kashrut of one's food (see 613 Mitzvot). These laws are developed and expanded upon in the Mishnah and the Talmud. The laws are developed formally in all the major codes of Jewish law. There are sections on business ethics in the Mishneh Torah (12th century) and the Shulkhan Arukh (17th century); a wide array of topics on business ethics are discussed in the responsa literature. Judaism is the religious culture of the Jewish people. ... Torah, (תורה) is a Hebrew word meaning teaching, instruction, or especially law. It primarily refers to the first section of the Tanakh–the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, or the Five Books of Moses, but can also be used in the general sense to also include both the... The circled U indicates that this can of tuna is certified kosher by the Union of Orthodox Congregations. ... In Judaism there is a tradition that the Torah contains 613 mitzvot (Hebrew for commandments, from mitzvah - מצוה - precept, plural mitzvot; from צוה, tzavah- command). ... The Mishnah (Hebrew משנה, Repetition) is a major source of rabbinic Judaisms religious texts. ... The first page of the Talmud, in the standard Vilna edition. ... Halakha (הלכה or Halakhah, Halacha, Halachah) is the collective corpus of Jewish rabbinic law, custom and tradition. ... The Mishneh Torah or Yad ha-Chazaka is a code of Jewish law by one of the most important Jewish authorities, Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides or by the Hebrew abbreviation RaMBaM (usually written Rambam in English). ... The Shulkhan Arukh (Hebrew: Prepared Table), by Rabbi Yosef Karo is considered the most authoritative compilation of Jewish law since the Talmud. ... Note: This is based on an entry from the 1906 public domain Jewish Encyclopedia The responsa literature, known in Hebrew as Sheelot U-teshuvot (questions and answers), is the body of written decisions and rulings given by rabbis to questions addressed to them. ...

The literature also addresses the ethical dimension. Rabbi Yisrael Lipkin Salanter (19th century), founder of the Mussar movement in Eastern European, taught that just as one checks carefully to make sure their food is kosher, so too should one check to see if their money is earned in a kosher fashion (Chofetz Chaim, Sfat Tamim, chapter 5). The teachings go much further, there is a widely quoted tradition (see for e.g. Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh 62:1) that in one's judgement in the next world, the first question asked is: "were you honest in business?" Rabbi (Classical Hebrew רִבִּי ribbī; modern Ashkenazi and Israeli רַבִּי rabbī) in Judaism, means teacher, or more literally great one. The word Rabbi is derived from the Hebrew root-word RaV, which in biblical Hebrew means great or distinguished,. In the ancient Judean schools the sages were addressed as רִבִּי (Ribbi or Rebbi... Rabbi Yisrael ben Zev Wolf Lipkin (1810-1883) was the father of the Mussar movement in Orthodox Judaism. ... The Hebrew term mussar, while literally derived from a word meaning tradition, usually refers to Jewish ethics in general, or (and more commonly) refers to the Jewish ethics education movement that developed in the 19th century Orthodox Jewish European community. ... Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan, known as the Chofetz Chaim. ... An oral law is a code of conduct in use in a given culture, religion or other regroupement, by which a body of rules of human behaviour is transmitted by oral tradition and effectively respected, or the single rule that is verbally transmitted. ... Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried (Hungary 1804 to 1886) is best known as the author of the work of Halakha (Jewish law), the Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh (lit. ...

Christian business ethics

Christianity has an extensive literature on the accumulation and use of wealth. The basis of this theology is the Old Testament and the New Testament. Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life, teachings, death by crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament writings of his early followers. ... The Old Testament or the Hebrew Scriptures (also called the Hebrew Bible) constitutes the first major part of the Bible according to Christianity. ... The New Testament, sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures is the name given to the part of the Christian Bible that was written after the birth of Jesus. ...

For example, Jesus asked his disciplies, "If you lend to those from whom you hope to receive, what credit is that to you?" Luke 6:34. Although this may be a general injunction to disinterested benevolence, it has also been read as a condemnation of interest or usury. Jesus referenced this especially when one lends to another believer. As a christian, with an eternal mindset, ultimately God is our rewarder and lending to a fellow believer should be left to God to reward over collecting nominal interest. Luke may refer to: Gospel of Luke, third book of the New Testament Luke the Evangelist Luke Skywalker from the Star Wars film trilogy Luke Danes on the television show Gilmore Girls Uncle Luke, a Miami-based rapper, producer, and porn director. ... In finance, interest has three general definitions. ... Usury (from the Latin usus meaning used) was defined originally as charging a fee for the use of money. ...

Muslim business ethics

Islam has an extensive literature and legal code on the accumulation and use of wealth. The basis of these laws is the Qur'an, and they are amplified in the Hadith. Muslim wealth ethics include avoidance of the exploitation of people in need through lending them money at interest (riba). Islam  listen? (Arabic: al-islām) the submission to God is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions, and the worlds second largest religion. ... The Quran (Arabic: al-qurān literally the recitation; also called Al Qurān Al KarÄ«m or The Noble Quran; or transliterated Quran, Koran, and less commonly Alcoran) is the holy book of Islam. ... Hadith (Arabic: , Arabic pl. ... The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) is a professional body for architects in the United Kingdom. ...

See also:

• Corporate social responsibility
• Ethics
• Ethical code
• Fiduciary
• List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics
• Management

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a company’s obligation to be accountable to all of its stakeholders in all its operations and activities with the aim of achieving sustainable development not only in the economical dimension but also in the social and environmental dimensions. ... Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the science (study) of morality. In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is good or right. ... This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... A fiduciary is a person who occupies a position of trust in relation to someone else such that he is required to act for the latters benefit within the scope of that relationship. ... See business ethics or political economy for an overview. ... Management (from Old French ménagement the art of conducting, directing, from Latin manu agere to lead by the hand) characterises the process of leading and directing all or part of an organization, often a business, through the deployment and manipulation of resources (human, financial, material, intellectual or intangible). ...

References

General references

Moral Issues in Business, Vincent E. Barry, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1986

Essays on Ethics in Business and the Professions, Jack N. Behrman, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988

Business Ethics, A Kantian Perspective, Norman E. Bowie, Blackwell, 1999.

Ethical Dilemmas in the Modern Corporation Gerald F. Cavanagh, Prentice-Hall, 1988

Ethics and the Management of Computer Technology: Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference on Business Ethics National Conference on Business Ethics (4th: 1981: Bentley College) Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain, 1981

Business Ethics, William H. Shaw, Wadsworth Publishing, 1992.

The Right Thing: Conscience, Profit and Personal Responsibility in Today's Business, Jeffrey L. Seglin, Spiro Press, 2003

Above the Bottom Line: An Introduction to Business Ethics Robert C. Solomon, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983

Norman E. Bowie is a professor of strategic management, and of philosophy. ... Robert C. Solomon (b. ...

Jewish references

You Shall Strengthen Them: A Rabbinic Letter on the Poor Elliot N. Dorff with Lee Paskind, The Rabbinical Assembly, NY

Free Enterprise and Jewish Law: Aspects of Jewish Business Ethics Aaron Levine, Ktav Publishing House, 1980

The Challenge of Wealth, Meir Tamari, Jason Aronson Inc., 1995

With All Your Possessions: Jewish Ethics and Economic Life, Meir Tamari, Free Press, 1987, ISBN 0029321506

Al Chet: Sins in the marketplace, Meir Tamari, Jason Aronson, 1986, ISBN 1568219067

Torah Guide for the Businessman, S. Wasschal, Philipp Feldheim Inc, 1990, ISBN 1583301399

• External links
  • Center for Business Ethics and Social Responsibility
  • Famous Quotations on Business Ethics
  • A Model Course in Jewish Business Ethics

Elliot N. Dorff is a Conservative rabbi, a professor of Jewish theology at the University of Judaism in California, author, and a bio-ethicist. ...

Christian references

Biblical Business Ethics: Exploring Secular Ethical Values & Alternative Christian Approaches, David Bertch, Terry Martin, Dyna Martin, Works Press, 1994. ISBN 0963447238

Business By The Book: The Complete Guide Of Biblical Principles For The Workplace, Larry Burkett, Nelson Reference; Updated edition 1998, ISBN 0785271414

God is my CEO: Following God's Principles in a Bottom-Line World, Larry S. Julian, Adams Media Corporation, 2001, ISBN 1580624774

Full value: Cases in Christian business ethics O.F. Williams and J. W. Houck, San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, 1978

Muslim references

Islamic Business Ethics Rafik Issa Beekun, The International Institute of Islamic Thought

Islam and the Economic Challenge M.Umer Chapra

The Problem With Interest Tarek El Diwany

Distributive Justice And Need Fulfilment in an Islamic Economy Munawar Iqbal, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester, U.K.

Islamic Commercial Law: An Analysis of Futures and Options Mohammad Hashim Kamali, 2000, ISBN 0-946621-80-2

Banking Without Interest Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi