Artist's conception of a Bussard ramjet. In an actual ramjet, most of the structure would be invisible electromagnetic fields.

The Bussard ramjet method of spacecraft propulsion was proposed in 1960 by the physicist Robert W. Bussard and popularized by Carl Sagan in the television series and subsequent book Cosmos as a variant of a fusion rocket capable of fast interstellar spaceflight. It would use a large ram scoop (on the order of kilometers to many thousands of kilometers in diameter) to compress hydrogen from the interstellar medium and fuse it. This mass would then form the exhaust of a rocket to accelerate the ramjet. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3000x2401, 1537 KB) original description: The Boussard Interstellar Ramjet engine concept uses interstellar hydrogen scooped up from its environment as the spacecraft passes by to provide propellant mass. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3000x2401, 1537 KB) original description: The Boussard Interstellar Ramjet engine concept uses interstellar hydrogen scooped up from its environment as the spacecraft passes by to provide propellant mass. ... A remote camera captures a close-up view of a Space Shuttle Main Engine during a test firing at the John C. Stennis Space Center in Hancock County, Mississippi Propulsion means to add speed or acceleration to an object, by an engine or other similar device. ... 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1960 calendar). ... Robert W. Bussard (born 1928) is an American physicist working primarily in nuclear fusion energy research. ... Insert non-formatted text here Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer and astrobiologist and a highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics, and other natural sciences. ... The cover For the TV series, see Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. ... Cosmos: A Personal Voyage was the name of a thirteen part television series produced by Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan which was first broadcast by the Public Broadcasting Service in 1980. ... A fusion rocket is a rocket that uses a fusion reaction to power it. ... A ram scoop is a theoretical device to power spaceflight. ... A kilometer (Commonwealth spelling: kilometre), symbol: km is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1,000 metres (from the Greek words χίλια (khilia) = thousand and μέτρο (metro) = count/measure). ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... The interstellar medium (or ISM) is the name astronomers give to the tenuous gas and dust that pervade interstellar space. ... A Soyuz rocket, at Baikanur launch pad. ...

Design discussion

An ideal ramjet design could in principle accelerate indefinitely until its mechanism failed. Ignoring drag, a ship driven by such an engine could theoretically accelerate arbitrarily close to the velocity of light, and would be a very effective interstellar spacecraft. In practice, since the drag produced by collecting the interstellar medium increases with speed, any such ramjet would have a limiting speed, where the drag equals thrust. To produce positive thrust, the fusion reactor must be capable of producing fusion without significantly slowing the incident ions down (relative to the ship).

An object's velocity can be calculated by summing over time the acceleration supplied (ignoring the effects of special relativity, which would quickly become significant at useful interstellar accelerations). If a ramjet could accelerate at 10 m/s², slightly more than one Earth gravity, it would attain 77% of light velocity within a year. However, if the ramjet has an average acceleration of 0.1 m/s², then it needs 100 years to go as fast, and so on. The special theory of relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. Some three centuries earlier, Galileos principle of relativity had stated that all uniform motion was relative, and that there was no absolute and well-defined state of rest...

The top speed of a ramjet-driven spaceship depends on five things:

1. The rate at which mass is collected from space by the ion scoop.
2. The ramjet's exhaust velocity, and the net thrust level obtained from the exhaust jet. The generated thrust can be calculated as the mass of ions expelled per second multiplied by the ramjet exhaust velocity (V_e).
3. The drag produced by collecting the interstellar medium, which will be a function of velocity.
4. The thrust to mass ratio of the ramjet which is: A = thrust divided mass (N/kg = m/s²)
5. How long the ramjet is actually able to remain under thrust before it breaks down.

The collected propellant can be used as reaction mass in a plasma rocket engine, ion rocket engine, or even in an antimatter-matter annihilation powered rocket engine. Interstellar space contains an average of 10^-21 kg of mass per cubic meter of space, primarily in the form of unionized and ionized hydrogen, with smaller amounts of helium, and no significant amounts of other gasses. This means that the ramjet scoop must sweep 10¹⁸ cubic meters of space to collect one gram of hydrogen. General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... General Name, Symbol, Number helium, He, 2 Chemical series noble gases Group, Period, Block 18, 1, s Appearance colorless Standard atomic weight 4. ...

A large energy source adds more mass to the ramjet system, and this makes it harder to accelerate. Therefore, the specific power, (A) of the ramjet's energy source is crucial. The specific power A is the number of joules of energy the starship's reactor generates per kilogram of its mass. This depends on the ramjet fuel's energy density, and on the specific design of the ramjets nuclear power reactors.

The obvious fuel source, the one proposed by Bussard, is fusion of hydrogen, the most common component of interstellar gas. Unfortunately, the proton-proton fusion rate is close to zero for this purpose: protons in the Sun on average survive for a billion years or more before reacting. Accordingly, an interstellar ramjet would have to be powered by other nuclear reactions, but the required isotopes are rare in the interstellar medium. A fusion reactor used to power a ramjet starship might be a steady state magnetic fusion reactor based on the following nuclear fusion reactions. ²H + ²H → ³He + ¹n⁰ + 18 MeV, or ²H + ³H → ⁴He + ¹n⁰ + 20 MeV. Internal view of the JET tokamak superimposed with an image of a plasma taken with a visible spectrum video camera. ... Overveiw of the proton-proton chain. ... Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a stable isotope of hydrogen with a natural abundance in the oceans of Earth of approximately one atom in 6500 of hydrogen (~154 PPM). ... Tritium (symbol T or 3H) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. ...

The mass of the ion ram scoop must be minimized on an interstellar ramjet. The size of the scoop is large enough that the scoop cannot be solid. This is best accomplished by using an electromagnetic field, or alternatively using an electrostatic field to build the ion ram scoop. Such an ion scoop will use electromagnetic funnels, or electrostatic fields to collect ionized hydrogen gas from space for use as propellant by ramjet propulsion systems (since much of the hydrogen is not ionized, some versions of a scoop propose ionizing the hydrogen, perhaps with a laser, ahead of the ship.) An electric field can electrostatically attract the positive ions, and thus draw them inside a ramjet engine. The electromagnetic funnel would bend the ions into helical spirals around the magnetic field lines to scoop up the ions via the starship's motion through space. Ionized particles moving in spirals produce an energy loss, and hence drag; the scoop must be designed to both minimize the circular motion of the particles and simultaneously maximize the collection. Likewise, if the hydrogen is heated during collection, thermal radiation will represent an energy loss, and hence also drag; so an effective scoop must collect and compress the hydrogen without significant heating. A magnetohydrodynamic generator drawing power from the exhaust could power the scoop. Experiment with a laser (likely an argon type) (US Military) In physics, a laser is a device that emits light through a specific mechanism for which the term laser is an acronym: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. ... MHD Simulation of Solar Wind Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), or magnetofluiddynamics, is the academic discipline which studies the dynamics of electrically-conducting fluids. ...

The collection-radius of such an ionic ramscoop is the distance from the ramjet at which the ramscoop's electric field is greater than the galactic electric field of 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ V/m, or the ramscoop's electromagnetic field is greater than the natural galactic magnetic field of 0.1 nanotesla ( 1×10⁻⁶ gauss). The strength of the ramscoop collection field would decline proportionately to 1/d³ in distance from the ramscoop generator.

Discussions of feasibility

Since the time of Bussard's original proposal, it has been discovered that the region surrounding the sun has a much lower density of interstellar hydrogen than was believed at that time, and to date all attempts to design such a scoop as Bussard proposed produce more drag than thrust. By 1978 analyses indicated that Bussard ramjets were infeasable.^[1]

Robert Zubrin and Dana Andrews analyzed one hypothetical version of the Bussard ramscoop and ramjet design in 1985. They determined that their version of the ramjet was unfeasible by calculation. However, in their calculations they assumed that: Zubrin giving a talk in 2005. ... Dana Andrews (January 1, 1909 - December 17, 1992) was an American film actor. ...

1. The exhaust velocity of their interplanetary ion propulsion ramjet could not exceed 100,000 m/s (100 km/s);
2. The largest available energy source could be a 500 kilowatt nuclear fission reactor.

In the Zubrin/Andrews interplanetary ramjet design, they calculated that the drag force d/dt(mv₁) equals the mass of the scooped ions collected per second multiplied by the velocity of the scooped ions within the solar system relative to the ramscoop. The velocity of the (scooped) collected ions was assumed to be 500,000 m/s. The kilowatt (symbol: kW) is a unit for measuring power, equal to one thousand watts. ... For the generation of electrical power by fission, see Nuclear power plant An induced nuclear fission event. ...

The exhaust velocity of the ions when expelled by the ramjet was assumed not to exceed 100,000 m/s. The thrust of the ramjet d/dt(mv₂) was equal to the mass of ions expelled per second multiplied by 100,000 meters per second. In the Zubrin/Andrews design of 1985, this resulted in the condition that d/dt(mv₁) > d/dt(mv₂). This condition resulted in the drag force exceeding the thrust of the hypothetical ramjet in the Zubrin/Andrews version of the design.

These assumptions may have been valid for the specific version of the ramjet that was examined by Zubrin/Andrews.

Consider also the case of a vessel leaving a star system, or heading to the outer planets. In this case, the force produced by the solar wind is beneficial. Since the values for drag are based on relative velocity, using the scoop as a form of solar sail will provide additional thrust as long as the vessel is travelling at less than 500,000 m/s away from a star. While interstellar matter is relatively scarce, this abundance of high-energy ions in the neighborhood of stars has potential for initial acceleration and braking on arrival. The plasma in the solar wind meeting the heliopause For the British comic, see Solar Wind (comic). ...

The key condition that determines whether or not an interstellar ramjet will accelerate forward in the direction of its thrust is that the thrust of the ramjet must exceed drag that results from scooping up ions from space. Or, as discussed above, the condition d/dt(mv₂) > d/dt(mv₁) must be true.

• d/dt(mv₁) is the drag force experienced by the ramjet during its actual operation; d/dt(mv₁) is the mass of collected propellant per unit time times the velocity of the scooped ions relative to the ramjet starship.
• d/dt(mv₂) is the thrust produced by the ramjet; d/dt(mv₂) is the mass of the collected ramjet propellant per unit time multiplied by the exchaust velocity at which it is expelled from the Ramjet engine to generate thrust.

Example

For example, a ramjet might collect 1 gram of incoming ions per second from interstellar space beyond the heliopause, at a velocity of 50 km/s relative to the ramjet driven spacecraft. In this case d/dt(mv₁) is (0.001 kg/s) (50,000 m/s), yielding a drag force of 50 newtons. The heliopause is the boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar medium outside the solar system. ...

If the gram of ions is then accelerated to 500,000 m/s then d/dt(mv₂) is (0.001 kg/s) (500,000 m/s) = 500 N.

Therefore, -50 newtons + 500 newtons yields a net force forward of 450 newtons.

The typical velocity of the solar wind within the solar system is 500 km/s. The typical velocity of the interstellar wind is 50 km/s beyond the heliopause. In the solar system, if the exhaust velocity of the ramjet exceeds 500 km/s there will be a net thrust that will accelerate the ramjet. Figures here assume the spacecraft is travelling towards the sun (since the solar wind is directional), under the worst conditions for thrust.

If the example were set in the solar system, the drag force, d/dt(mv₁), would be about (0.001 kg/s) (500,000 m/s), or 500 newton.

If the exhaust velocity of the ramjet were 1,000,000 m/s then d/dt(mv₂) = (0.001 kg/s) (1,000,000 m/s) = 1000 N of thrust, and -500 newtons + 1000 newtons = net thrust of 500 newtons to accelerate the ramjet forward.

If the Zubrin/Andrews assumption were correct then d/dt(mv₁) = 500 N, and d/dt(mv₂) = 100 N, and the drag forces would exceed the thrust of the ramjet. Under those conditions, the ramjet would likely only function along vectors perpendicular to the solar wind.

Related inventions

The calculations (by Robert Zubrin and an associate) inspired the idea of a magnetic parachute or sail. This could be important for interstellar travel because it means that deceleration at the destination can be performed with a magnetic parachute rather than a rocket. Zubrin giving a talk in 2005. ... A magnetic sail or magsail is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion. ...

There may be other practical modifications of this concept. For example, perhaps one could shoot nuggets of fuel in front of a spacecraft from a fixed base, and then the spacecraft would not have to accelerate its own fuel. More speculatively, if the hydrogen was somehow fed into the engine and fused without being accelerated to the spacecraft's current velocity first, there would be no drag. A problem that must be overcome is that most interstellar hydrogen is ordinary protium, instead of the easier-to-fuse deuterium and tritium isotopes, and so makes a poor fusion fuel; it is possible that this could be overcome by using a carbon–nitrogen–oxygen catalysed nuclear cycle. Potential relative velocities of such a ship are theorized to exceed 16 per cent (0.16) of the speed of light. A hydrogen atom is an atom of the element hydrogen. ... Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a stable isotope of hydrogen with a natural abundance in the oceans of Earth of approximately one atom in 6500 of hydrogen (~154 PPM). ... Tritium (symbol T or 3H) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. ... Isotopes are any of the several different forms of an element each having different atomic mass (mass number). ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... A line showing the speed of light on a scale model of Earth and the Moon The speed of light in a vacuum is an important physical constant denoted by the letter c for constant or the Latin word celeritas meaning swiftness. It is the speed of all electromagnetic radiation...

One useful modification of the ramjet design is to use an electrostatic ion scoop, instead of an electromagnetic ion scoop to achieve the ion collection from space. In an electrostatic scoop a negative electric field on a forward grid electrostatically attracts the positive charged ions present in interstellar space and thus draws them into the ramjet engines. This can be a 100% electrostatic scoop in which an electromagnetic field is not used at all. There will be no converging electromagnetic field lines that can potentially generate drag effects by scooping the ions from interstellar space if this pure electrostatic approach is used. The scooped ions will however have an electric field-induced velocity when they are drawn inside of the ion ramjet engine. So long as the velocity of the ramjet engine exhaust jet is greater than the electric field-induced velocity of the incoming scooped ions there will be a net force in the direction of the ramjet's flight that will accelerate the spacecraft forward.

Furthermore, the net potential difference of the galactic electric field in interstellar space is only 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ volt. The effective ion collection radius of an electrostatic ion ram scoop will be the range at which the ramscoop electric field has a greater potential difference from the galactic electric field. This potential difference declines proportionately, too: 1/d² for distance d measured in meters, from the source of the ram scoop electric field.

The flux of the interstellar galactic electric field is 1.6 * 10^ -19 electron volts. This means that an electric ion ram scoop field will have an ion collection radius that is the square root of 10¹³ times (about three million times) greater than the ion collection radius of the electromagnetic ion ramscoop.

In fiction

The ramjet has been used occasionally in science fiction: A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a stovepipe jet, is a type of jet engine. ... Science fiction is a form of speculative fiction principally dealing with the impact of imagined science and technology, or both, upon society and persons as individuals. ...

• In Steven Baxter's novel Manifold: Space, the Gaijin 'flowerships' utilize a variant of Bussards ramjet for propulsion.

• Poul Anderson's 1970 novel Tau Zero is about a journey through the universe in a Bussard ramjet.

• Larry Niven's Known Space fictional universe has several stories in which ramjets play a key role. Niven's stories appear to have been the origin of the alternate term, often used in science fiction, of "ramscoop": first referred to as "ramscoopfusion" in the early story "Handicap", then abbreviated to the usual form in his later works.

• Niven's novel A World Out of Time, based on his short story "Rammer", also concerns a traveller using a Bussard Ramjet.

• In the novel Footfall by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, the alien invaders use a Bussard ramjet for interstellar travel.

• In the Star Trek fictional universe vessels commonly have magnetic hydrogen collectors, referred to as Bussard collectors or Bussard ramscoops. Those are seemingly fitted on the forward end of the twin "warp nacelles", and have a "reverse" function that allows for spreading hydrogen as well as sucking it in.

• In the computer game series Marathon, Mars's moon Deimos was outfitted with a ramjet and converted into a generation ship, Deimos was then renamed as Marathon, the titular ship of the story.

• The massive Seedships Calypso and Tantalus, from the PC game Alien Legacy, are equipped with Bussard ramjets.

• The Argo from Robert J. Sawyer's book Golden Fleece uses a Bussard ramjet for both locomotion and murder. In the latter case, the ship's deranged central computer, JASON, directs an occupied shuttle into the collection field. At near light-speed relative to the Argo, the hydrogen acts as hard radiation and instantly kills the shuttle's unfortunate occupant.

• Interstellar travel in the Slow Zone is accomplished with ramjets in Vernor Vinge's books A Deepness in the Sky and A Fire Upon the Deep.

• Robert A. Heinlein also used ramjet propelled ships in several of his books.

• In Peter F. Hamilton's Night's Dawn an alien race, inhabiting massive "cities" orbiting a red giant, uses a Bussard ramjet with an electromagnetic scoop. It does not only gather hydrogen for propulsion, but also heavier atoms as an alternative to mining.

• In Red Dwarf, the titular craft has a large 'Hydrogen Scoop' on the front and the books make reference to it gathering fuel directly from space- presumably a Bussard Ramjet of some sort.

• In Coyote by Allen Steele the Starship Alabama uses a Bussard ramjet for propulsion on the journey to 47 Ursae Majoris.

• In Beelzebub's Tales to his Grandson by G. I. Gurdjieff published in 1950 there is a description of a Space Ship which uses a device involving an inner cylinder into which the ship gathers the materials of space - the radioactive particles, nebulous gases, is filled - which then are constricted. The regulated escape of these compressed energies forces the ship forward into the area of low pressure created by the engine's intake.

• In the Doom novels by Dafydd ab Hugh and Brad Linaweaver, the ship that Fly and Arlene use to travel from the Fred homeworld is powered by a hydrogen scoop.

Stephen Baxter at the Science-Fiction-Tage NRW in Dortmund, Germany, March 1997 Stephen Baxter (born in Liverpool, 13 November 1957) is a British hard science fiction author. ... This article is about the Japanese word for foreigner. ... Air propulsion is the act of moving an object through the air. ... Poul William Anderson (November 25, 1926–July 31, 2001) was an American science fiction author of the genres Golden Age. ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday. ... A novel (from French nouvelle Italian novella, new) is an extended, generally fictional narrative, typically in prose. ... Tau Zero is a science fiction novel by Poul Anderson. ... A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a stovepipe jet, is a type of jet engine. ... Laurence van Cott Niven (born April 30, 1938 Los Angeles, California) is a US science fiction author. ... Known Space is the fictional setting of several science fiction novels and short stories written by author Larry Niven. ... A fictional universe is a cohesive imaginary world that serves as the setting or backdrop for one or (more commonly) multiple works of fiction. ... A World Out of Time is a science fiction novel by Larry Niven and published in 1976. ... Footfall is a 1985 science fiction novel written by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle. ... Laurence van Cott Niven (born April 30, 1938 Los Angeles, California) is a US science fiction author. ... Jerry Pournelle at the 2006 Stanford Singularity Summit Jerry Pournelle, (born August 7, 1933) is an American essayist, journalist and science fiction author who contributed for many years to the computer magazine Byte. ... The current Star Trek franchise logo Star Trek is an American science fiction entertainment series. ... A BlueGene supercomputer cabinet. ... Tug of war is an easily organized, impromptu game that requires little equipment. ... Marathon is a series of science fiction first-person shooter computer games from Bungie Software originally released for the Apple Macintosh. ... Adjectives: Martian Atmosphere Surface pressure: 0. ... A natural satellite is an object that orbits a planet or other body larger than itself and which is not man-made. ... Deimos (IPA or ; Greek Δείμος: Dread), is the smaller and outermost of Mars’ two moons, named after Deimos from Greek Mythology. ... A generation ship is a hypothetical starship that travels across great distances between stars at a speed much slower than that of light (see interstellar travel). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Robert J. Sawyer is a Canadian science fiction writer, dubbed the dean of Canadian science fiction by the Ottawa Citizen in 1999. ... Vernor Steffen Vinge (IPA: ) (born February 10, 1944) is a mathematician, computer scientist and science fiction author who is best known for his Hugo award-winning novels A Fire Upon the Deep and A Deepness in the Sky, as well as for his 1993 essay The Technological Singularity, in which... In 1999 Vernor Vinge published his science fiction novel, A Deepness in the Sky, a loose prequel (set 30,000 years earlier) to his novel A Fire Upon the Deep (1992). ... A Fire Upon the Deep (1992) is a science fiction novel written by Vernor Vinge. ... Robert Anson Heinlein (July 7, 1907 – May 8, 1988) was one of the most popular, influential, and controversial authors of hard science fiction. ... Peter F. Hamilton Peter F. Hamilton Peter F. Hamilton (born 1960, Rutland, England), is a British science fiction author. ... According to the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a red giant is a large non-main sequence star of stellar classification K or M; so-named because of the reddish appearance of the cooler giant stars. ... Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field, encompassing all of space, composed of the electric field and the magnetic field. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... This article is about mineral extraction. ... An artists impression of a planet in orbit around a red dwarf According to the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a red dwarf star is a small and relatively cool star, of the main sequence, either late K or M spectral type. ... Allen Mulherin Steele, Jr. ... 47 Ursae Majoris (abbreviated 47 UMa) is a 5th magnitude yellow dwarf star in the constellation of Ursa Major. ... This is the first of a three volume set written by G. I. Gurdjieff. ... Georges Ivanovich Gurdjieff Georges Ivanovich Gurdjieff (Георгий Иванович Гюрджиев, Georgiy Ivanovich Gyurdzhiev (or Gurdjiev); January 13, 1872? – October 29, 1949), was a Greek-Armenian mystic and spiritual teacher who initially gained public recognition as a teacher of sacred dance. ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday. ... Cover for the first Doom novel, Knee-deep in the dead The Doom novel series is a series of four near-future science fiction novels co-written by Dafydd ab Hugh and Brad Linaweaver; Knee-Deep in the Dead, Hell on Earth, Infernal Sky, and Endgame. ... Dafydd ab Hugh (born October 22, 1960) is a science fiction author. ... Brad Linaweaver is a Nebula Award finalist for the novella version, and Prometheus Award winner for the novel version of His other novels include Sliders (based on the television series) and Collaborative novels are four best selling Doom books with Dafydd ab Hugh, three Battlestar Galactica novels with Richard Hatch...

References

• For more on ramjet math calculations see The Star Flight Handbook (ISBN 0-471-61912-4).
• Interstellar Medium
• Interstellar Hydrogen