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The Roman civil war of 49 BC, sometimes called Caesar's Civil War, is one of the last conflicts within the Roman Republic. It was a series of political and military confrontations between Julius Caesar, his political supporters, and his legions, against the traditionalist conservative faction in the Roman Senate, sometimes known as the Optimates, or boni, backed by legions loyal to Pompey. The First Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... The Second Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... Combatants Roman Republic Italian allies of the Marsi, Samnites, Marrucini, Vestini, Paeligni, Frentani, Picentes Praetutii, Hirpini Commanders Publius Rutilius Lupus , Gaius Marius, Pompeius Strabo, Lucius Julius Caesar, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Titus Didius, Lucius Porcius Cato Quintus Poppaedius Silo, Gaius Papius Mutilus, Herius Asinius, Publius Vettius Scato, Publius Praesenteius, Gaius Vidacilius... There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. ... Quintus Sertorius (died 72 BC), Roman statesman and general. ... Combatants Lucius Cornelius Sulla Marius the Younger Commanders Sulla, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Pompey, Metellus Pius Marius the Younger, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, Pontius Telesinus, Lucius Cornelius Cinna Sullas second civil war was one of a series of civil wars of ancient Rome. ... Combatants Army of escaped slaves Roman Republic Commanders Crixus †, Oenomaus †, Spartacus † , Castus †, Gannicus † Gaius Claudius Glaber, Publius Varinius, Gnaeus Clodianus, Lucius Gellius Publicola, Gaius Cassius Longinus, Gnaeus Manlius, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, Lucius Quinctius, Gnaeus Tremellius Scrofa Strength 120,000 escaped slaves and gladiators... Lucius Sergius Catilina (108 BC–62 BC), known in English as Catiline, was a Roman politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Catiline (or Catilinarian) conspiracy, an attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic. ... The Battle of Mutina was fought on April 21, 43 BC between the forces of Marc Antony and the forces of Aulus Hirtius who was providing aid to one of Caesars assassins, Decimus Brutus. ... Belligerents Second Triumvirate Liberatores Commanders M. Antonius G. Julius Caesar Octavianus G. Cassius Longinus M. Junius Brutus The Liberators civil war was started by the Second Triumvirate to avenge Julius Caesars murder. ... Combatants Roman Republic The forces of Sextus Pompeius Commanders Octavian, Marcus Agrippa, Marcus Antonius, Marcus Aemelius Lepidus Sextus Pompeius Strength More than 200,000 The Sicilian revolt was a revolution against the Second Triumvirate which occurred between 44 BC and 36 BC. The revolt was led by Sextus Pompeius, and... Combatants Roman Republic Forces of Fulvia and Lucius Antonius Commanders Octavian, triumvir, Fulvia, Lucius Antonius Strength Unknown 8 legions Fulvias civil war was a civil war which lasted from 41 to 40 BC . ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Battle of Actium. ... This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Legion redirects here. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... Optimates (Good Men) were the aristocratic faction of the later Roman Republic. ... The word Boni can have the following meanings: The boni (good men) political faction of the late Roman Republic, also called the Optimates. ... For other meanings see Pompey (disambiguation). ...

After a long political and military struggle, between 49 and 45 BC, which would take in battles in Italia, Greece, Egypt, Africa, and Hispania, Caesar finally defeated the last of the traditional faction of the Roman senate at the Battle of Munda and became dictator. A portion of the Tabula Peutingeriana, a Roman map of the 4th century, depicting the southern part of Italia. ... Categories: Historical stubs | Ancient Roman provinces ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus †, Gnaeus Pompeius; Strength 8 legions, 8,000 cavalry total: circa 40,000 men 13 legions, cavalry and auxiliaries total: circa 70,000 men Casualties 1,000 30,000 The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in the plains...

Caesar's civil war and its resulting changes in Roman government all but swept away the political traditions of the Roman Republic, a blow which eventually led to the Roman Empire. This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ...

The political/military situation preceding the war

Many historians view the war as a logical result of a long process of subversion of the political institutions of the Roman government, starting with the career of Tiberius Gracchus, and continuing with the Marian reforms of the legions, the bloody dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and finally the sway of the First Triumvirate over Rome. Subversion is an overturning or uprooting. ... Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (168 BC-133 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. As a plebeian tribune, he caused political turmoil in the Republic by his attempts to legislate agrarian reforms. ... The Marian reforms of 107 BC were a group of military reforms initiated by Gaius Marius, a statesman and general of the Roman republic. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Dictator was a political office of the Roman Republic. ... Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX)[1] (ca. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ...

The First Triumvirate, as it was first called by Cicero, consisted of Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, and came to power in 59 BC when Caesar was elected consul. The union of Pompey's military might, Caesar's influence, and Crassus' money was solidified with the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia in 59 B.C. Caesar's first consulship tasked him with watching over the forests. This position was specially created because of the enemies Caesar had in the Senate. It was meant to give Caesar no fame or wealth, and to limit the climb of his career path, or, cursus honorum. The Triumvirate reform program was enacted and Caesar got himself promoted to the position of governor of Illyricum and Gaul. This does not cite its references or sources. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives (c. ... For other meanings see Pompey (disambiguation). ... This article is about the Roman rank. ... A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief adminstator of Roman law throughout one or more of Ancient Romes many provinces. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... Gaul in the Roman Empire Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in what would become modern day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and western Germany. ...

After the First Triumvirate ended, the senate supported Pompey, who became sole consul in 52 BC. Meanwhile, Caesar had become a military hero as well as a champion of the people. The senate feared him and wanted him to give up his army, knowing that he hoped to be consul when his term in Gaul expired. In December 50 BC, Caesar wrote to the senate saying that he would give up his army if Pompey would give up his. The senate heard the letter with fury and demanded that Caesar disband his army at once or be declared an enemy of the people—an illegal bill, for Caesar was entitled to keep his army until his term was up. Another reason for Caesar's immediate want for another consulship was to delay his inevitable senatorial prosecutions waiting for him after retirement of his position. The potential prosecutions were based on irregularities related to his term as consul and loose accusations of war crimes throughout his campaigns in Gaul. The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ...

Two tribunes faithful to Caesar, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) and Quintus Cassius Longinus vetoed the bill and were quickly expelled from the senate. They fled to Caesar, who assembled his army and asked for the support of the soldiers against the senate. The army called for action. Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by 2-3 elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Bust of Marcus Antonius Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N¹) (c. ... Quintus Cassius Longinus, the brother or cousin of Cassius the murderer of Julius Caesar, was a governor in Spain for Caesar. ...

In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to return to Rome and disband his army because his term as Proconsul had finished. Moreover, the Senate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship in absentia. Caesar thought that he would be prosecuted and politically marginalized if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a Consul or without the power of his army. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason.

The civil war

Crossing the Rubicon

Further information: Rubicon  and Alea iacta est

On January 10, 49 BC Caesar crossed the Rubicon with one legion, the Legio XIII Gemina. The Rubicon marked the boundary between the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul to the north and Italy proper to the south, and Roman law forbade any general from crossing it with an army. The purpose of the law was to protect the republic from internal military threat. Caesar's action thus marked the beginning of the civil war. Presumed course of the Rubicon For other uses, see Rubicon (disambiguation). ... Alea iacta est (also seen as alea jacta est) is Latin for The die has been cast. Actually quoted by Suetonius as iacta alea est [ˈjakta ˈaːlɛa ɛst], it is what Julius Caesar is reported to have said on January 10, 49 BC as he led his army... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Consuls: Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus, Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior. ... Presumed course of the Rubicon For other uses, see Rubicon (disambiguation). ... Legion redirects here. ... Sestertius minted in 248 by Philip the Arab to celebrate Dacia province and its legions, V Macedonica and XIII Gemina. ...

Historians differ as to what Caesar said upon crossing the Rubicon; the two major competing lines are "Alea iacta est" ("The die is cast"), and "Let the dice fly high!" (a quotation from a line by the New Comedy poet Menander). This minor controversy is occasionally seen in modern literature when Colleen McCullough attributes the less popular Menander line to Caesar in her Masters of Rome series of novels.^{[citation needed]} Alea iacta est (also seen as alea jacta est) is Latin for The die has been cast. Actually quoted by Suetonius as iacta alea est [ˈjakta ˈaːlɛa ɛst], it is what Julius Caesar is reported to have said on January 10, 49 BC as he led his army... Two standard six-sided pipped dice with rounded corners. ... Greek comedy is the name given to a wide genre of theatrical plays written, and performed, in Ancient Greece. ... Bust of Menander Menander (342–291 BC) (Greek ), Greek dramatist, the chief representative of the New Comedy, was born in Athens. ...

The march on Rome & the early Hispanian campaign

Further information: Battle of Massilia, Siege of Massilia, Massilia, and Battle of Ilerda

Caesar's march to Rome was a triumphal progress. Not knowing that Caesar had only one legion with him and fearing the worst, the Senate offered Pompey their backing, which he neither denied nor accepted. Pompey, realizing that Rome was in danger, made the statement "Rome cannot be defended." and with the reigning consuls, and the more conservative senators (known as the Optimates), fled to Capua. This retreat was later reflected on by Cicero to be an "outward sign of weakness," giving Caesar a built up confidence in his campaign for his eventual dictatorship. Siege and naval battle at Massilia in Caesars civil war. ... Siege and naval battle at Massilia in Caesars civil war. ... Marseilles redirects here. ... Battle of Ilerda took place in June 49 BC between the forces of Julius Caesar and the Spanish army of Pompey the Great, lead by his legates Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... Capua is a city in the province of Caserta, (Campania, Italy) situated 25 km (16 mi) north of Napoli, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. ...

Pompey did have some armies at his disposal: two legions he had commanded Caesar to send from Gaul earlier (11,000 men), plus hastily levied Italian troops under Domitius Ahenobarbus, who established their camp in central Italy. As Caesar moved further south, Pompey removed to southern Italy. From there, he repeatedly urged Domitius to move north against Caesar, who was making his way south along the eastern coast, in hopes of intercepting him before he got to Rome. Domitius repeatedly refused. Caesar marched right up to his camp, engaged his armies, and defeated them. Pompey then went to Brundisium to await the ships that would take him to the eastern provinces, where he had enormous influence. From there he hoped to raise armies and money, and blockade Italy by sea. The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled south to join him, leaving a rear guard at Capua.

While Pompey's fortification was taking place, Caesar turned his eye toward Hispania, and its leaderless army. He wanted to make sure he destroyed the remnants of any army that Pompey could later use against him. Therefore he attacked and defeated Afrainius and Petrieus during his Illerda campaign in 49 B.C. On that campaign, Caesar took six legions along with 3,000 cavalry from his Gallic campaigns and 900 horsemen kept as his personal bodyguard. The casualty count for the Romans was 70 deaths while the Pompeians lost 200 and had 600 wounded. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ...

Caesar pursued Pompey to Brundisium, hoping to restore their alliance of ten years prior. In fact, throughout the early stages of the war, Caesar made frequent offers to lay down his arms if Pompey would do the same. Pompey persistently refused, on the grounds that Caesar was his subordinate and was duty-bound to cease his advance and dismiss his armies before any negotiations could take place. The basic problem was ego:^{[citation needed]} Therefore, Caesar wanted to be treated as Pompey's equal, and Pompey saw himself as having no equal.

Pompey eluded Caesar's advance on Brundisium, and fled (March, 49 BC) with his fleet to Greece.

Caesar then made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Hispania where he defeated Pompey's legates and armies, and pacified that province. Returning to Rome, Caesar held the dictatorship for 11 days in early December, long enough to get himself elected consul, and then set out for Greece in pursuit of Pompey. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... A dictator is an authoritarian, often totalitarian ruler (e. ...

Campaigns in Greece and Africa

Further information: Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC), Battle of Pharsalus, Battle of Bagradas River (49 BC), and Battle of Utica (49 BC)

At Brundisium Caesar collected a small army of about 15,000 men and slipped across the strait to Epirus. At the time, Pompey was considering three options: allying himself with the King of Parthia, an erstwhile ally far to the east; exploiting his overwhelming naval superiority by invading Italy; or facing Caesar in one decisive battle. Allying with Parthia was a non-starter: no one would look favorable upon using Parthian troops against Roman legions. Invading Italy was politically unsavory as well as risky: the Italians, who had rebelled against Rome only 30 years earlier, might rise against him now. On his councilor's advice, he opted for the single decisive battle. Combatants Optimates Populares Commanders Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus Gaius Julius Caesar Strength 45,000 15,000 Casualties Unknown 1,000 The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium) on 10 July 48 BC was one of a series of contests between Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus that ended with Pompeys... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Gaius Julius Caesar Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus Strength Approximately 22,000 legionaries, 5,000-10,000 Auxiliaries and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 1800 Approximately 60,000 legionaries, 4,200 Auxiliaries and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 5,000-8,000 Casualties 1,200 6,000 The... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Gaius Scribonius Curio† Attius Varus King Juba of Numidia The Battle of the Bagradas River (49 BC) occurred on August 24 and was fought between Julius Caesars general Gaius Curio and the Pompeians under Attius Varus and King Juba I of Numidia. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Gaius Curio Attius Varus King Juba of Numidia This article is about the battle which was part of Caesars civil war. ... Brundisium (Gr. ... Parthia at its greatest extent under Mithridates II (123–88 BC) Capital Ctesiphon, Ecbatana Government Monarchy [[Category:Former monarchies}}|Parthia, 247 BC]] History  - Established 247 BC  - Disestablished 220 AD Parthian votive relief. ...

Caesar's pursuit across the Adriatic into Illyrium settled it. On July 10, 48 BC he met Pompey at Dyrrhachium but lost 1,000 veterans and was forced to fall back. Pompey could not believe his ragtag army had bested Caesar's seasoned legions, and believing the retreat was a trap refused to give chase, thus losing the chance to end the civil war quickly. Caesar began a long retreat southward, with Pompey in pursuit. Near Pharsalus, Caesar camped in a strategic location. Pompey, who had a far larger army, was persuaded to attack Caesar but was routed in an exceedingly short engagement—Pompey had lost his nerve. The Adriatic Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea separating the Apennine peninsula (Italy) from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. ... Illyricum, Roman province Illyricum was the Roman province established in place of the former kingdom of Illyria. ... is the 191st day of the year (192nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus. ... Combatants Optimates Populares Commanders Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus Gaius Julius Caesar Strength 45,000 15,000 Casualties Unknown 1,000 The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium) on 10 July 48 BC was one of a series of contests between Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus that ended with Pompeys... Farsala (Greek: Φάρσαλα), ancient times: Pharsalus is one of the largest cities in the prefecture and is also a municipality as well as a province. ...

The Egyptian dynastic struggle

Main article: Cleopatra VII

Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered by an officer of King Ptolemy XIII. In Rome in the meantime, Caesar was appointed dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar resigned this dictatorate after eleven days and was elected to a second term as consul with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus as his colleague. He pursued the Pompeian army to Alexandria, where they camped and became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regnant queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces and installed Cleopatra as ruler, with whom he fathered his only known biological son, Ptolemy XV Caesar, better known as "Caesarion". Caesar and Cleopatra never married, due to Roman law that prohibited a marriage with a non-Roman citizen. Cleopatra redirects here. ... Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (lived 62 BCE/61 BCE–January 13, 47 BCE?, reigned from 51 BCE) was one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Dictator was a political office of the Roman Republic. ... The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases, is) a historical position of varying importance in several European nations. ... A Roman Consul elected in 48 BC along with Julius Caesar. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... For other uses, see Pharaoh (disambiguation). ... Cleopatra was a co-ruler of Egypt with her father (Ptolemy XII Auletes), her brothers/husbands Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne, and, after Caesars assassination, aligned with Mark Antony, with whom she produced twins. ... Pothinus (early 1st Century BC - 48 or 47 BC) was regent for Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt. ... A relief of Cleopatra and Caesarion at the temple of Dendera, Egypt Ptolemy XV[1] Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion (little Caesar) Greek: Πτολεμαίος ΙΕ Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ Καίσαρ, Καισαρίων (June 23, 47 BC – August, 30 BC) was the last king of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, who reigned, as a child, jointly with his mother, Cleopatra...

The war against Pharnaces

Main article: Pharnaces II of Pontus

After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, he went to Syria, and then to Pontus to deal with Pharnaces II, a client king of Pompey's who had taken advantage of the Romans being distracted by their civil war to oppose the Roman-friendly Deiotarus and make himself the ruler of Colchis and lesser Armenia. At Nicopolis he defeated what little Roman opposition Caesar's Asian lieutenant Domitius Calvinus could muster. He had also taken the city of Amisus which was a Roman ally, made all the boys eunuchs and sold the inhabitants to slave traders. After this show of strength against the Romans, Pharnaces drew back to suppress revolt in his new conquests. Pharnaces II of Pontus (63 BC - 47 BC), was the king of Pontus and son of the great Mithridates VI. Pompey had defeated Mithridates VI in 64 BC and gained control of much of Asia Minor, but Pharnaces II attempted to take advantage of the Roman civil war to retake... Traditional rural Pontic house A man in traditional clothes from Trabzon, illustration Pontus is the name which was applied, in ancient times, to extensive tracts of country in the northeast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) bordering on the Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pontos (the main), by... Pharnaces II of Pontus (63 BC - 47 BC), was the king of Pontus and son of the great Mithridates VI. Pompey had defeated Mithridates VI in 64 BC and gained control of much of Asia Minor, but Pharnaces II attempted to take advantage of the Roman civil war to retake... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Satellite state. ... Deiotarus was a tetrarch of Galatia (Gallo-Graecia) in Asia Minor, and a faithful ally of the Romans. ... In ancient geography, Colchis or Kolchis (Georgian/Laz: კოლხეთი, kolkheti; Greek: , Kolchís) was an ancient Georgian [1][2][3], state[4] [5]kingdom and region[6] in the Western Georgia (Caucasus region), which played an important role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the Georgian nation and its subgroups. ... Nicopolis (meaning in Greek: city of victory; see also List of traditional Greek place names) or Actia Nicopolis was an ancient city of Epirus, founded 31 BC by Octavian in memory of his victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. ... Domitius Calvinus was a Roman general under the command of Julius Caesar during the Roman Republican Civil Wars. ... European illustration of a Eunuch (1749) Chief Eunuch of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II at the Imperial Palace, 1912. ...

Nevertheless, the extremely rapid approach of Caesar in person forced Pharnaces to turn his attention back to the Romans. At first, recognizing the threat, he made offers of submission, with the sole object of gaining time until Caesar's attention fell elsewhere; but Caesar's speed brought war quickly, and battle took place near Zela (modern Zile in Turkey), where Pharnaces was routed with just a small detachment of cavalry. Caesar's victory was so swift and complete that, in a letter to a friend in Rome, he famously said of the short war, “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) - indeed, for his Pontic triumph, that may well have been the label displayed above the spoils. The Battle of Zela (47 BC) was a decisive battle in Julius Caesars civil war. ... Veni, vidi, vici (IPA or ) is a famous Latin phrase spoken by Julius Caesar in 47 BC. The phrase appears in Plutarch and Suetonius (Plut. ...

Pharnaces himself fled quickly back to the Bosporus, where he managed to assemble a small force of Scythian and Sarmatian troops, with which he was able to gain control of a few cities; however, a former governor of his, Asandar, attacked his forces and killed him. The historian Appian states that Pharnaces died in battle; Dio Cassius says Pharnaces was captured and then killed. Approximate extent of Scythia and Sarmatia in the 1st century BC (the orange background shows the spread of Eastern Iranian languages, among them Scytho-Sarmatian). ... Sarmatian Cataphract Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae (the second form is mostly used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks and the Romans) were a people whom Herodotus (4. ... Appian (c. ... Dio Cassius Cocceianus (c. ...

The later campaign in Africa: the war on Cato

Further information: Battle of Thapsus, Battle of Ruspina, and Anti-Cato

Caesar returned to Rome to deal with several mutinous legions. While Caesar had been in Egypt installing Cleopatra as Queen, four of his veteran legions encamped outside of Rome under the command of Mark Antony. The legions were waiting for their discharges and the bonus pay Caesar had promised them before the battle of Pharsalus. As Caesar lingered in Egypt, the situation quickly deteriorated. Antony lost control of the troops and they began looting estates south of the capital. Several delegations of diplomats were dispatched to try to quell the mutiny. Nothing worked and the mutineers continued to call for their discharges and back pay. After several months, Caesar finally arrived to address the legions in person. Caesar knew he needed these legions to deal with Pompey's supporters in north Africa, who had mustered 14 legions of their own. Caesar also knew that he did not have the funds to give the soldiers their back pay, much less the money needed to induce them to reenlist for the north African campaign. Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders G. Julius Caesar Metellus Scipio †, Cato the younger † Strength Unknown (at least 10 legions) Unknown (at least 10 legions), 2,500 cavalry Jubas allied troops with 60 elephants Casualties 1,000 30,000 The Battle of Thapsus took place on February 6, 46 BC near... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus The Battle of Ruspina was fought on January 4, 46 BC between the forces of Julius Caesar and the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus. ... A bust of Julius Caesar. ...

When Caesar approached the speaker's dais, a hush fell over the mutinous soldiers. Most were embarrassed by their role in the mutiny in Caesar's presence. Caesar coldy asked the troops what they wanted. Ashamed to demand money, the men began to call out for their discharge. Caesar bluntly addressed them as "citizens" instead of "soldiers," a tacit indication that they had already discharged themselves by virtue of their disloyalty. He went on to tell them that that they would all be discharged immediately. He said he would pay them the money he owed them after he won the north African campaign with other legions. The soldiers were shocked. They had been through 15 years of war with Caesar and they had become fiercely loyal to him in the process. It had never occurred to them that Caesar did not need them. The soldiers' resistance collapsed. They crowded the dais and begged to be taken to north Africa. Caesar feigned indignation and then allowed himself to be won over. When he announced that he would suffer to bring them along, a huge cheer arose from the assembled troops. Through a brilliant combination of personal charisma and reverse psychology, Caesar reenlisted four enthusiastic veteran legions to invade north Africa without spending a single sesterce. Reverse psychology is the term that describes the outcome where advocacy of one course of action persuades another person to do the opposite. ... The sestertius was an ancient Roman coin. ...

In the same year he set out for Africa, where the followers of Pompey had fled, to end their opposition led by Cato. A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC–46 BC), known as Cato the Younger (Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather Cato the Elder), was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy. ...

Caesar quickly gained a significant victory at Thapsus in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who was drowned) and Cato the Younger and Juba (who both committed suicide). Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders G. Julius Caesar Metellus Scipio †, Cato the younger † Strength Unknown (at least 10 legions) Unknown (at least 10 legions), 2,500 cavalry Jubas allied troops with 60 elephants Casualties 1,000 30,000 The Battle of Thapsus took place on February 6, 46 BC near...

The second Hispanian campaign: end of the war

Main article: Battle of Munda

Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompeius, together with Titus Labienus (Caesar's former propraetorian legate (legatus propraetore) and second in command in the Gallic War) escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) and 45 BC (without colleague). Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus †, Gnaeus Pompeius; Strength 8 legions, 8,000 cavalry total: circa 40,000 men 13 legions, cavalry and auxiliaries total: circa 70,000 men Casualties 1,000 30,000 The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in the plains... Gnaeus Pompeius (c. ... Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius, in English Sextus Pompey, was a Roman general from the late Republic (1st century BC). ... Titus Labienus (ca. ... A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was equivalent to a modern general officer in the Roman army. ... A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus †, Gnaeus Pompeius; Strength 8 legions, 8,000 cavalry total: circa 40,000 men 13 legions, cavalry and auxiliaries total: circa 70,000 men Casualties 1,000 30,000 The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in the plains... Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (Latin: M·AEMILIVS·M·F·Q·N·LEPIDVS),[1] d. ...

Aftermath of the war

• Caesar becomes dictator of Rome, for life
• Caesar is assassinated on the Ides of March.

Vincenzo Camuccini, Mort de César, 1798. ...

Chronology

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• 49 BC
  • January 1 - The Roman Senate receives a proposal from Julius Caesar that he and Pompey should lay down their commands simultaneously. The Senate responds that Caesar must immediately surrender his command.
  • January 10 - Julius Caesar leads his army across the Rubicon, which separates his jurisdiction (Cisalpine Gaul) from that of the Senate (Italy), and thus initiates a civil war.
  • February, Pompey's flight to Epirus (in Western Greece) with most of the Senate
  • March 9, Caesar advanced against Pompeian forces in Hispania
  • April 19, Caesar's siege of Massilia against the Pompeian Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, later the siege was conducted by Caesarian Gaius Trebonius
  • June, Caesar's arrival in Hispania, who was able to seized the Pyrenees passes against the Pompeian L. Afranius and M. Petreius.
  • July 30, Caesar surrounded Afranius and Petreius's army in Ilerda
  • August 2, Pompeians in Ilerda surrendered to Caesar
  • August 24 - Caesar's general Gaius Scribonius Curio, is defeated in North Africa by the Pompeians under Attius Varus and King Juba I of Numidia (whom he defeated earlier in the Battle of Utica, in the Battle of the Bagradas River), and commits suicide.
  • September Decimus Brutus, a Caesarian, defeated the combined Pompeian-Massilian naval forces in the naval Battle of Massilia, while the Caesarian fleet in the Adriatic was defeated near Curicta (Krk)
  • September 6, Massilia surrendered to Caesar, coming back from Hispania
  • October, Caesar appointed Dictator in Rome
• 48 BC:
  • January 4, Caesar landed at Dyrrhachium (Durazzo)
  • March, Antony joined Caesar
  • April, Battle of Dyrrhachium
  • July 10 - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia, he retreats to Thessaly.
  • August 9 - Roman Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.
  • Julius Caesar is named consul for a period of five years
  • September 28, Caesar learned that Pompey was assassinated.
  • Siege of Alexandria
  • October, Pharnaces, King of Bosporus defeated the Caesarian Domitius Calvinus in the Battle of Nicopolis (or Nikopol)
  • December - Battle in Alexandria, Egypt between the forces of Caesar and his ally Cleopatra VII of Egypt and those of rival King Ptolemy XIII of Egypt and Queen Arsinoe IV. The latter two are defeated and flee the city; Cleopatra becomes queen of Egypt. During the battle part of the Library of Alexandria catches fire and is burned down.
• 47 BC
  • February - Caesar and his ally Cleopatra defeat the forces of the rival Egyptian Queen Arsinoe IV in the Battle of the Nile, Ptolemy was killed, Caesar then relieved his besieged forces in Alexandria
  • May - Caesar defeated Pharnaces II of Pontus, king of the Bosporus in the Battle of Zela. (This is the war that Caesar tersely described veni, vidi, vici.)
  • Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt promotes her younger brother Ptolemy XIV of Egypt to co-ruler.
  • August, Caesar quelled a mutiny of his veterans in Rome.
  • October, Caesar's invasion of Africa, against Metellus Scipio and Labienus, Caesar's former lieutenant in Gaul
• 46 BC
  • January 4 – Caesar is defeated by his former second in command Titus Labienus in the Battle of Ruspina. Nearly 1/3 of Caesar's army is killed.
  • February 6 – Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio and Juba in the Battle of Thapsus. Cato commits suicide.
  • November – Caesar leaves for Farther Hispania to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance.
  • Caesar is "elected" Pontifex Maximus for life, and reforms the Roman calendar to create the Julian calendar. The transitional year is extended to 445 days to synchronize the new calendar and the seasonal cycle. The Julian Calendar would remain the standard in the western world for over 1600 years, until superseded by the Gregorian Calendar in 1582.
  • Caesar appoints his nephew Octavian his heir.
• 45 BC
  • January 1 - Julian calendar goes into effect
  • March 17 - In his last victory, Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the younger in the Battle of Munda. Pompey the younger was executed, and Labienus died in battle, but Sextus Pompey escaped to take command of the remnants of the Pompeian fleet.
  • The veterans of Caesar's Legions Legio XIII Gemina and Legio X Equestris demobilized. The veterans of the 10th legion would be settled in Narbo, while those of the 13th would be given somewhat better lands in Italia itself.
  • Caesar probably writes the Commentaries in this year
• 44 BC
  • Julius Caesar is named Dictator Perpetuus
  • Julius Caesar is assassinated on March 15th, the Ides of March.

Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... is the 1st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... For other meanings see Pompey (disambiguation). ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Presumed course of the Rubicon For other uses, see Rubicon (disambiguation). ... Epirus, spanning Greece and Albania. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... Marseilles redirects here. ... Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul 54 BC was an enemy of Julius Caesar and a strong supporter of the aristocratical party. ... Gaius Trebonius (died 43 BC) was a military commander and politician of the late Roman Republic, a trusted associate of Julius Caesar who later participated in his assassination. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... Pic de Bugatetin the Néouvielle Natural Reserve Central Pyrenees For the mountains in Victoria, Australia, see Pyrenees (Victoria). ... Lucius Afranius was a loyal legatus and client of Pompey the Great. ... is the 236th day of the year (237th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Gaius Scribonius Curio was the name of a father and son who lived in the late Roman Republic. ... Publius Attius Varus (d. ... Juba I of Numidia (Reigned 60 B.C. - 46 B.C.) Juba I Juba I (c. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Gaius Curio Attius Varus King Juba of Numidia This article is about the battle which was part of Caesars civil war. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Gaius Curio† Attius Varus King Juba of Numidia The Battle of the Bagradas River (49 BC) occured on August 24 and was fought between Julius Caesars general Gaius Curio and between the Pompeians under Attius Varus and King Juba of Numidia. ... Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (died 43 BC) was a Roman politician and general of the 1st century BC, one of Julius Caesars assassins. ... Siege and naval battle at Massilia in Caesars civil war. ... The Adriatic Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea separating the Apennine peninsula (Italy) from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. ... Location of Krk in Croatia Krk (Italian Veglia, Latin Curicta) is a Croatian island in the northern Adriatic Sea, located near Rijeka (Italian Fiume) in the Bay of Kvarner (Italian Quarnaro) and part of the Primorje-Gorski Kotar county. ... Location of Krk in Croatia Krk (Italian Veglia, Latin Curicta) is a Croatian island in the northern Adriatic Sea, located near Rijeka in the Bay of Kvarner and part of the Primorje-Gorski Kotar county. ... The Greek city of Epidamnos (Strabo Geography vi. ... Durrës (Photo by Marc Morell) Durrës (Albanian: Durrës or Durrësi) is the most ancient city of Albania and one of the most economically important as the biggest port city. ... Bust of Marcus Antonius Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N¹) (c. ... Battle of Dyrrhachium Conflict Roman Republican civil wars Date July 10, 48 BC Place Dyrrhachium Result Victory of Pompey The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium) on 10 July 48 BC was one of a series of contests between Julius Caesar and Pompey that ended with Pompeys defeat in the... is the 191st day of the year (192nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Battle of Dyrrhachium Conflict Roman Republican civil wars Date July 10, 48 BC Place Dyrrhachium Result Victory of Pompey The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium) on 10 July 48 BC was one of a series of contests between Julius Caesar and Pompey that ended with Pompeys defeat in the... For other meanings see Pompey (disambiguation). ... Map showing Thessaly periphery in Greece Thessaly (Θεσσαλια; modern Greek Thessalía; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. ... is the 221st day of the year (222nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Gaius Julius Caesar Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus Strength Approximately 22,000 legionaries, 5,000-10,000 Auxiliaries and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 1800 Approximately 60,000 legionaries, 4,200 Auxiliaries and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 5,000-8,000 Casualties 1,200 6,000 The... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... For other meanings see Pompey (disambiguation). ... Farsala (Greek: Φάρσαλα), ancient times: Pharsalus is one of the largest cities in the prefecture and is also a municipality as well as a province. ... The Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt began following Alexander the Greats conquest in 332 BC and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. It was founded when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt, creating a powerful Hellenistic state from southern Syria... This article is about the Roman rank. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Pharnaces II of Pontus (63 BC - 47 BC), was the king of Pontus and son of the great Mithridates VI. Pompey had defeated Mithridates VI in 64 BC and gained control of much of Asia Minor, but Pharnaces II attempted to take advantage of the Roman civil war to retake... The Bosporan Kingdom, which was located on the Crimea peninsula, existed in the time of the Roman Empire. ... Domitius Calvinus was a Roman general under the command of Julius Caesar during the Roman Republican Civil Wars. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Cleopatra was a co-ruler of Egypt with her father (Ptolemy XII Auletes), her brothers/husbands Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne, and, after Caesars assassination, aligned with Mark Antony, with whom she produced twins. ... Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (lived 62 BCE/61 BCE–January 13, 47 BCE?, reigned from 51 BCE) was one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. ... Arsinoe IV (c. ... Inscription regarding Tiberius Claudius Balbilus of Rome (d. ... The Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt began following Alexander the Greats conquest in 332 BC and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. It was founded when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt, creating a powerful Hellenistic state from southern Syria... Arsinoe IV (c. ... The Battle of the Nile ”Victory is not a name strong enough for such a scene” – Nelson, surveying the floating carnage the day after the battle. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Pharnaces II of Pontus (63 BC - 47 BC), was the king of Pontus and son of the great Mithridates VI. Pompey had defeated Mithridates VI in 64 BC and gained control of much of Asia Minor, but Pharnaces II attempted to take advantage of the Roman civil war to retake... The Battle of Zela (47 BC) was a decisive battle in Julius Caesars civil war. ... For other uses, see Pharaoh (disambiguation). ... Cleopatra was a co-ruler of Egypt with her father (Ptolemy XII Auletes), her brothers/husbands Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne, and, after Caesars assassination, aligned with Mark Antony, with whom she produced twins. ... Ptolemy XIV (lived 60 BC/59 BC - 44 BC, reigned 47 BC - 44 BC), a son of Ptolemy XII of Egypt was one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... The Caecilii Metellii was one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. ... Titus Labienus (c. ... Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given, in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... is the 4th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Titus Labienus (ca. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus The Battle of Ruspina was fought on January 4, 46 BC between the forces of Julius Caesar and the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus. ... is the 37th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other meanings see Pompey (disambiguation). ... This article is about the Roman province. ... The Caecilii Metellii was one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. ... Juba I of Numidia (Reigned 60 B.C. - 46 B.C.) Juba I Juba I (c. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders G. Julius Caesar Metellus Scipio †, Cato the younger † Strength Unknown (at least 10 legions) Unknown (at least 10 legions), 2,500 cavalry Jubas allied troops with 60 elephants Casualties 1,000 30,000 The Battle of Thapsus took place on February 6, 46 BC near... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... Alternate meanings: see Pontifex (disambiguation) In Ancient Rome, the Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the collegium of the Pontifices, the most august position in Roman religion, open only to a patrician, until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post. ... The Julian calendar was a reform of the Roman calendar which was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 ab urbe condita). ... Occident redirects here. ... For the calendar of religious holidays and periods, see liturgical year. ... Augustus Caesar Caesar Augustus (Latin: IMP·CAESAR·DIVI·F·AVGVSTVS)¹ (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), known earlier in his life as Gaius Octavius or Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was the first Roman Emperor and is traditionally considered the greatest. ... is the 1st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Julian calendar was a reform of the Roman calendar which was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 ab urbe condita). ... is the 76th day of the year (77th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other meanings see Pompey (disambiguation). ... Titus Labienus (ca. ... Gnaeus Pompeius, also known as Pompey the younger, was a Roman politician and general from the late Republic (1st century BC). ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus †, Gnaeus Pompeius; Strength 8 legions, 8,000 cavalry total: circa 40,000 men 13 legions, cavalry and auxiliaries total: circa 70,000 men Casualties 1,000 30,000 The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in the plains... This article refers to the Roman General. ... Titus Labienus (c. ... Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius, in English Sextus Pompey, was a Roman general from the late Republic (1st century BC). ... Sestertius minted in 248 by Philip the Arab to celebrate Dacia province and its legions, V Macedonica and XIII Gemina. ... Legio X Gemina, the twin legion, was levied by Julius Caesar on 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. ... An alternative spelling for Narbonne, a city and commune of southwestern France, in the Aude département, of which it is a sous-préfecture. ... A portion of the Tabula Peutingeriana, a Roman map of the 4th century, depicting the southern part of Italia. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Dictator Perpetuus is a Latin phrase meaning Dictator in perpetuity, or dictator for life. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Vincenzo Camuccini, Mort de César, 1798. ...

See also

• Julius Caesar
• Pompey

For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... For other meanings see Pompey (disambiguation). ...

References

Bibliography

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion.

Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ...

In ancient literature

Caesar's propaganda

He was very concerned to present the war as just and not a crime against the state as his enemies said.

• The Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War) [1], events of the Civil War until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.

Other works about the civil war historically attributed to Caesar, but whose authorship is doubted, are: Commentarii de Bello Civile (literally Commentaries on the Civil War in Latin) is an account written by Julius Caesar about his war against Pompey the Great. ...

• De Bello Hispaniensis (On the Hispanic War) [2], campaigns in Hispania;
• De Bello Africo (On the African War) [3], campaigns in North Africa; and
• De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War) [4], campaign in Alexandria.

De Bello Hispaniensis (meaning On the Hispanic War in Latin) is a book said to be written by Julius Caesar, though its authorship is heavily disputed. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... De Bello Africo (meaning On the African War in Latin) is a book said to be written by Julius Caesar, though its authorship is heavily disputed. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

In later literature

Main article: Pharsalia

This article is about the poem. ...

Modern fictionalized accounts

• A fictionalized version of the civil war is portrayed in the first season of HBO/BBC historical drama television series, Rome. While better than many fictional portrayals, the series takes many liberties with events, and people, drastically altering many historical figures, and only covering a few of the "famous" battles of the civil war. Even then, these battles are presented symbolically, schematically and briefly, with a ten-second burst of soldiers shouting at one another and then a standard dropped in the mud in slow-motion.
• The Roma Sub Rosa series of detective novels is set in part during this civil war.

HBO (Home Box Office) is a premium cable television network with headquarters in New York City. ... BBC Two (or BBC2 as it was formerly styled) was the second UK television station to be aired by the BBC. History The channel was scheduled to begin at 7:20pm on April 20, 1964 and show an evening of light entertainment, starting with the comedy show The Alberts and... The historical drama is a film genre in which stories are based upon historical events and famous persons. ... A television program is the content of television broadcasting. ... Rome is a historical drama television series co-created by Bruno Heller, John Milius, and William J. MacDonald and primarily written by Heller. ... Roma Sub Rosa is a series of mystery novels by Steven Saylor set in, and populated by noteworthy denizens of, Ancient Rome. ...

Scholarly literature

On causes

E.S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic, California U.P. 1974, pp. 449-497. ISBN 0-520-20153-1

On the war itself