A calculus is a stone (a concretion of material, usually mineral salts) that forms in an organ or duct of the body. Stones cause a number of important medical conditions. 1. ...

Common stone diseases

A number of important medical conditions are caused by stones:

• Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones)
  • Can cause hydronephrosis (swollen kidneys) and renal failure
  • Can predispose to pyelonephritis (kidney infections)
  • Can progress to bladder stones and bladder outlet obstruction
• Cholelithiasis (gallstones)
  • Can predispose to cholecystitis (gall bladder infections) and ascending cholangitis (biliary tree infection)
  • Can progress to choledocholithiasis (gallstones in the bile duct) and gallstone pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)
• Rhinolith (nasal calculus)

Stones can also be asymptomatic. Kidney stones are solid accretions (crystals) of dissolved minerals in urine found inside the kidneys or ureters. ... The kidneys are organs that filter wastes (such as urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. ... Hydronephrosis is distention and dilation of the renal pelvis, usually caused by obstruction of the free flow of urine from the kidney. ... Renal failure is the condition in which the kidneys fail to function properly. ... Pyelonephritis is an ascending urinary tract infection that has reached the pyelum (pelvis) of the kidney (nephros in Greek). ... Kidney stones, also known as nephrolithiasis, urolithiasis or renal calculi, are solid accretions (crystals) of dissolved minerals in urine found inside the kidneys or ureters. ... In medicine, gallstones are crystalline bodies formed within the body by accretion or concretion of normal or abnormal bile components. ... Cholecystitis is inflammation of the gallbladder. ... The gallbladder (or cholecyst) is a pear-shaped organ that stores bile (or gall) until the body needs it for digestion. ... Cholangitis redirects here. ... A bile duct is any of a number of long tube-like structures that carry bile. ... Choledocholithiasis is the presence of a gallstone in the common bile duct. ... Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. ... The pancreas is an organ in the digestive and endocrine system (of vertebrates[2]). It is both exocrine (secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin). ... A rhinolith is a calculus present in the nasal cavity. ...

Some common principles (below) apply to stones at any location, but for specifics see the particular stone type in question.

Aetiology

• From an underlying abnormal excess of the mineral, eg. with elevated levels of calcium (hypercalcaemia) that may cause kidney stones, dietary factors for gallstones.
• Local conditions at the site in question that promote their formation, e.g. local bacteria action (in kidney stones) or slower fluid flow rates, a possible explanation of the majority of salivary duct calculus occurring in the submandibular salivary gland.
• Bezoars are a type of calculus found in the intestines of mostly ruminant animals and may be composed of inorganic or organic constituents.

General Name, Symbol, Number calcium, Ca, 20 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, Period, Block 2, 4, s Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 40. ... Hypercalcaemia (or Hypercalcemia) is an elevated calcium level in the blood. ... Kidney stones, or Renal calculi, are solid concretions (crystal aggregations) of dissolved minerals in urine; calculi typically form inside the kidneys or ureters. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Salivary sublingual gland stones Salivary duct calculus is a concretion of mostly calcium mineral salts (calculus) that forms within the ducts. ... The submandibular gland is one of the salivary glands, responsible for producing saliva. ... The salivary glands produce saliva, which keeps the mouth and other parts of the digestive system moist. ... A bezoar or enterolith is a sort of calculus or concretion, a stone found in the intestines of mostly ruminant animals. ... In anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the stomach to the anus and, in humans and other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine (or colon). ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... “Animalia” redirects here. ... Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. ... Biological material may refer to: Biological tissue, or just tissue Biomass, living or dead biological matter, often plants grown as fuel Biomass (ecology), the total mass of living biological matter Biomolecule, a chemical compound that naturally occurs in living organisms Biotic material, from living things Bio-based material, a processed...

Pathophysiology & Symptoms

Stones can cause disease by several mechanisms:

• Irritation of nearby tissues, causing pain, swelling, and inflammation.
• Obstruction of an opening or duct, interfering with normal flow and disrupting the function of the organ in question.
• Predisposition to infection (often due to disruption of normal flow).

Diagnosis

Diagnostic workup varies by the stone type, but in general:

• Clinical history and physical examination can be sufficient in some cases.
• Imaging studies are often needed.
  • Some stone types (mainly those with substantial calcium content) can be detected on X-ray and CT scan.
  • Many stone types can be detected by ultrasound.
• Factors contributing to stone formation (as in #Aetiology) are often tested:
  • Laboratory testing can give levels of relevant substances in blood or urine.
  • Some stones can be directly recovered (at surgery, or when they leave the body spontaneously) and sent to a laboratory for analysis of content.

In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... CAT apparatus in a hospital Computed axial tomography (CAT), computer-assisted tomography, computed tomography, CT, or body section roentgenography is the process of using digital processing to generate a three-dimensional image of the internals of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around... Medical ultrasonography (sonography) is an ultrasound-based diagnostic imaging technique used to visualize muscles and internal organs, their size, structures and possible pathologies or lesions. ... A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a laboratory where tests are done on biological specimens in order to get information about the health of a patient. ...

Treatment

Again, treatment varies by stone type, but in general:

• Modification of predisposing factors can sometimes slow or reverse stone formation.
  • Medications can sometimes be used.
  • Surgery is sometimes needed.
• Infections due to stones have to be treated with antibiotics and/or surgery.
• Pain is managed with medication.

See also

• Rhinolith (nasal calculus)
• Salivary duct calculus