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Encyclopedia > Calculus of variations

Calculus of variations is a field of mathematics that deals with functionals, as opposed to ordinary calculus which deals with functions. Such functionals can for example be formed as integrals involving an unknown function and its derivatives. The interest is in extremal functions: those making the functional attain a maximum or minimum value. For other meanings of mathematics or uses of math and maths, see Mathematics (disambiguation) and Math (disambiguation). ... In mathematics, the term functional is applied to certain functions. ... For other uses, see Calculus (disambiguation). ... Graph of example function, The mathematical concept of a function expresses the intuitive idea of deterministic dependence between two quantities, one of which is viewed as primary (the independent variable, argument of the function, or its input) and the other as secondary (the value of the function, or output). A... In mathematics, the term functional is applied to certain functions. ...

Perhaps the simplest example of such a problem is to find the curve of shortest length connecting two points. If there are no constraints, the solution is obviously a straight line between the points. However, if the curve is constrained to lie on a surface in space, then the solution is less obvious, and possibly many solutions may exist. Such solutions are known as geodesics. A related problem is posed by Fermat's principle: light follows the path of shortest optical length connecting two points, where the optical length depends upon the material of the medium. One corresponding concept in mechanics is the principle of least action. The theory of optimal control concerns a specific kind of problem in the calculus of variations. In mathematics, a geodesic is a generalization of the notion of a straight line to curved spaces. In presence of a metric, geodesics are defined to be (locally) the shortest path between points on the space. ... Fermats principle assures that the angles given by Snells law always reflect lights quickest path between P and Q. Fermats principle in optics states: This principle was first stated by Pierre de Fermat. ... For other uses, see Mechanic (disambiguation). ... The principle of least action was first formulated by Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, who said that Nature is thrifty in all its actions. See action (physics). ... Optimal control theory, a generalization of the calculus of variations, is a mathematical optimization method for deriving control policies. ...

Many important problems involve functions of several variables. Solutions of boundary value problems for the Laplace equation satisfy the Dirichlet principle. Plateau's problem requires finding a surface of minimal area that spans a given contour in space: the solution or solutions may be found by dipping a wire frame in a solution of soap suds. Although such experiments are relatively easy to perform, their mathematical interpretation is far from simple: there may be more than one locally minimizing surface, and they may have non-trivial topology. Laplaces equation is a partial differential equation named after its discoverer Pierre-Simon Laplace. ... In mathematics, Dirichlets principle in potential theory states that the harmonic function on a domain with boundary condition on can be obtained as the minimizer of the Dirichlet integral amongst all functions such that on , provided only that there exists one such function making the Dirichlet integral finite. ... In mathematics, Plateaus problem is to show the existence of a minimal surface with a given boundary. ...

1 The Euler-Lagrange equation
2 The Beltrami Identity
3 du Bois Raymond's theorem
4 Fermat's principle
- 4.1 Snell's law
- 4.2 Fermat's principle in three dimensions
  - 4.2.1 Connection with the wave equation
5 The action principle
6 Functions of several variables
- 6.1 Dirichlet's principle
- 6.2 Generalization to other boundary value problems
7 Eigenvalue problems
- 7.1 Sturm-Liouville problems
- 7.2 Eigenvalue problems in several dimensions
8 See also
9 Reference books
10 References

The Euler-Lagrange equation

Under ideal conditions, the maxima and minima of a given function may be located by finding the points where its derivative vanishes. By analogy, solutions of smooth variational problems may be obtained by solving the associated Euler-Lagrange equation. In order to illustrate this process, consider the problem of finding the shortest curve in the plane that connects two points $(x 1, y 1)$ and $(x 2, y 2)$ . The arc length is given by The Euler-Lagrange equation, developed by Leonhard Euler and Joseph-Louis Lagrange in the 1750s, is the major formula of the calculus of variations. ... Determining the length of an irregular arc segmentâ€”also called rectification of a curveâ€”was historically difficult. ...

$A[f] = int_{x_1}^{x_2} sqrt{1 + [ f'(x) ]^2} , dx,$

with

$f'(x) = frac{df}{dx}, ,$

and where $y = f (x)$ , $f (x 1) = y 1$ and $f (x 2) = y 2 .$ The function f should have at least one derivative in order to be admitted to the competition. If $f 0$ is a local minimum and $f 1$ is an arbitrary function that vanishes at the endpoints $x 1$ and $x 2$ and with at least one derivative, then we must have A graph illustrating local min/max and global min/max points In mathematics, a point x* is a local maximum of a function f if there exists some ε > 0 such that f(x*) ≥ f(x) for all x with |x-x*| < ε. Stated less formally, a local maximum...

$A[f_0] le A[f_0 + epsilon f_1]$

for any number ε close to 0. Therefore, the derivative of $A [f 0 + ε f 1]$ with respect to ε (the first variation of A) must vanish at ε=0. Thus

$int_{x_1}^{x_2} frac{ f_0'(x) f_1'(x) } {sqrt{1 + [ f_0'(x) ]^2}}dx =0, ,$

for any choice of the function $f 1$ . We may interpret this condition as the vanishing of all directional derivatives of $A [f 0]$ in the space of differentiable functions. If we assume that $f 0$ has two continuous derivatives (or if we consider weak derivatives), then we may use integration by parts: In mathematics, a weak derivative is a generalization of the concept of the derivative of a function (strong derivative) for functions not assumed differentiable, but only integrable, i. ... In calculus, and more generally in mathematical analysis, integration by parts is a rule that transforms the integral of products of functions into other, hopefully simpler, integrals. ...

$int_a^b u(x) v'(x),dx = left[ u(x) v(x) right]_{a}^{b} - int_a^b u'(x) v(x),dx$

with the substitution

$u(x)=frac{ f_0'(x)} {sqrt{1 + [ f_0'(x) ]^2}}, quad v'(x)=f_1'(x),$

then we have

$left[ u(x) v(x) right]_{x_1}^{x_2} - int_{x_1}^{x_2} f_1(x) frac{d}{dx}left[ frac{ f_0'(x) } {sqrt{1 + [ f_0'(x) ]^2}} right] , dx =0,$

but the first term is zero since $v (x) = f 1 (x)$ was chosen to vanish at $x 1$ and $x 2$ where the evaluation is taken. Therefore,

$int_{x_1}^{x_2} f_1(x) frac{d}{dx}left[ frac{ f_0'(x) } {sqrt{1 + [ f_0'(x) ]^2}} right] , dx =0$

for any twice differentiable function $f 1$ that vanishes at the endpoints of the interval. This is a special case of the fundamental lemma of calculus of variations: The fundamental lemma of the calculus of variations states that if f is a function in C [a,b], and for every function h âˆˆ C2[a,b] with h(a) = h(b) = 0, then f(x) is identically zero in the open interval (a,b). ...

$I =int_{x_1}^{x_2} f_1(x) H(x) dx =0, ,$

for any differentiable function $f 1 (x)$ that vanishes at the endpoints of the interval. Since $f 1 (x)$ is an arbitrary function within the integration range, we conclude that $H (x) = 0$ . Therefore,

$frac{d}{dx}left[ frac{ f_0'(x) } {sqrt{1 + [ f_0'(x) ]^2}} right] =0.,$

It follows from this equation that

$frac{d^2 f_0}{dx^2}=0,$

and hence the extremals are straight lines.

A similar calculation holds in the general case where

$A[f] = int_{x_1}^{x_2} L(x,f,f') dx . ,$

and f is required to have two continuous derivatives. Again, we find an extremal $f 0$ by setting $f = f 0 + ε f 1$ , taking the derivative with respect to ε, and setting $ε = 0$ at the end:

$begin{align} left.frac{dA}{depsilon}right|_{epsilon = 0} & = int_{x_1}^{x_2} left.frac{dL}{depsilon}right|_{epsilon = 0} dx & = int_{x_1}^{x_2} left(frac{partial L}{partial f} f_1 + frac{partial L}{partial f'} f'_1right) dx & = int_{x_1}^{x_2} left(frac{partial L}{partial f} f_1 - f_1 frac{d}{dx}frac{partial L}{partial f'} right) dx + left.frac{partial L}{partial f'} f_1 right|_{x_1}^{x_2} & = int_{x_1}^{x_2} f_1 left(frac{partial L}{partial f} - frac{d}{dx}frac{partial L}{partial f'} right) dx & = 0, end{align}$

where we have used the chain rule in the second line and integration by parts in the third. As before, the last term in the third line vanishes due to our choice of $f 1$ . Finally, according to the fundamental lemma of calculus of variations, we find that $L$ will satisfy the Euler-Lagrange equation In calculus, the chain rule is a formula for the derivative of the composite of two functions. ... In calculus, and more generally in mathematical analysis, integration by parts is a rule that transforms the integral of products of functions into other, hopefully simpler, integrals. ... The fundamental lemma of the calculus of variations states that if f is a function in C [a,b], and for every function h âˆˆ C2[a,b] with h(a) = h(b) = 0, then f(x) is identically zero in the open interval (a,b). ...

$-frac{d}{dx} frac{part L}{part f'} + frac{part L}{part f}=0,$

In general this gives a second-order ordinary differential equation which can be solved to obtain the extremal $f$ . The Euler-Lagrange equation is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for an extremal. Sufficient conditions for an extremal are discussed in the references. In mathematics, an ordinary differential equation (or ODE) is a relation that contains functions of only one independent variable, and one or more of its derivatives with respect to that variable. ... In logic, the words necessary and sufficient describe relations that hold between propositions or states of affairs, if one is conditional on the other. ... In logic, the words necessary and sufficient describe relations that hold between propositions or states of affairs, if one is conditional on the other. ...

The Beltrami Identity

Frequently in physical problems, it turns out that $part L/part x=0$ . In that case, the Euler-Lagrange equation can be simplified using the Beltrami Identity

$L-f'frac{part L}{part f'}=C,$

where $C$ is a constant. [1]

du Bois Raymond's theorem

The discussion thus far has assumed that extremal functions possess two continuous derivatives, although the existence of the integral A requires only first derivatives of trial functions. The condition that the first variation vanish at an extremal may be regarded as a weak form of the Euler-Lagrange equation. The theorem of du Bois Raymond asserts that this weak form implies the strong form. If L has continuous first and second derivatives with respect to all of its arguments, and if

$frac{part^2 L}{(part f')^2} ne 0,$

then $f 0$ has two continuous derivatives, and it satisfies the Euler-Lagrange equation.

Fermat's principle

Fermat's principle states that light takes a path that (locally) minimizes the optical length between its endpoints. If the x-coordinate is chosen as the parameter along the path, and $y = f (x)$ along the path, then the optical length is given by Fermats principle assures that the angles given by Snells law always reflect lights quickest path between P and Q. Fermats principle in optics states: This principle was first stated by Pierre de Fermat. ...

$A[f] = int_{x=x_0}^{x_1} n(x,f(x)) sqrt{1 + f'(x)^2} dx, ,$

where the refractive index $n (x, y)$ depends upon the material. If we try $f (x) = f 0 (x) + ε f 1 (x)$ then the first variation of A (the derivative of A with respect to ε) is

$delta A[f_0,f_1] = int_{x=x_0}^{x_1} left[ frac{ n(x,f_0) f_0'(x) f_1'(x)}{sqrt{1 + f_0'(x)^2}} + n_y (x,f_0) f_1 right] dx.$

After integration by parts of the first term within brackets, we obtain the Euler-Lagrange equation

$-frac{d}{dx} left[frac{ n(x,f_0) f_0'}{sqrt{1 + f_0'^2}} right] + n_y (x,f_0) =0. ,$

The light rays may be determined by integrating this equation.

Snell's law

There is a discontinuity of the refractive index when light enters or leaves a lens. Let

$n(x,y) = n_- quad hbox{if} quad x<0, ,$

$n(x,y) = n_+ quad hbox{if} quad x>0,,$

where $n -$ and $n +$ are constants. Then the Euler-Lagrange equation holds as before in the region where x<0 or x>0, and in fact the path is a straight line there, since the refractive index is constant. At the x=0, f must be continuous, but f' may be discontinuous. After integration by parts in the separate regions and using the Euler-Lagrange equations, the first variation takes the form

$delta A[f_0,f_1] = f_1(0)left[ n_-frac{f_0'(0_-)}{sqrt{1 + f_0'(0_-)^2}} -n_+frac{f_0'(0_+)}{sqrt{1 + f_0'(0_+)^2}} right].,$

The factor multiplying $n -$ is the sine of angle of the incident ray with the x axis, and the factor multiplying $n +$ is the sine of angle of the refracted ray with the x axis. Snell's law for refraction requires that these terms be equal. As this calculation demonstrates, Snell's law is equivalent to vanishing of the first variation of the optical path length. Refraction of light at the interface between two media of different refractive indices, with n2 > n1. ...

Fermat's principle in three dimensions

It is expedient to use vector notation: let $X = (x 1, x 2, x 3),$ let t be a parameter, let $X (t)$ be the parametric representation of a curve C, and let $dot X(t)$ be its tangent vector. The optical length of the curve is given by

$A[C] = int_{t=t_0}^{t_1} n(X) sqrt{ dot X cdot dot X} dt. ,$

Note that this integral is invariant with respect to changes in the parametric representation of C. The Euler-Lagrange equations for a minimizing curve have the symmetric form

$frac{d}{dt} P = sqrt{ dot X cdot dot X} nabla n, ,$

where

$P = frac{n(X) dot X}{sqrt{dot X cdot dot X} }.,$

It follows from the definition that P satisfies

$P cdot P = n(X)^2. ,$

Therefore the integral may also be written as

$A[C] = int_{t=t_0}^{t_1} P cdot dot X , dt.,$

This form suggests that if we can find a function ψ whose gradient is given by P, then the integral A is given by the difference of ψ at the endpoints of the interval of integration. Thus the problem of studying the curves that make the integral stationary can be related to the study of the level surfaces of ψ. In order to find such a function, we turn to the wave equation, which governs the propagation of light.

Connection with the wave equation

The wave equation for an inhomogeneous medium is The wave equation is an important partial differential equation that describes the propagation of a variety of waves, such as sound waves, light waves and water waves. ...

$u_{tt} = c^2 nabla cdot nabla u, ,$

where c is the velocity, which generally depends upon X. Wave fronts for light are characteristic surfaces for this partial differential equation: they satisfy

$varphi_t^2 = c(X)^2 nabla varphi cdot nabla varphi. ,$

We may look for solutions in the form

$varphi(t,X) = t - psi(X). ,$

In that case, ψ satisfies

$nabla psi cdot nabla psi = n^2, ,$

where $n = 1 / c .$ According to the theory of first order partial differential equations, if $P = nabla psi,$ then P satisfies In mathematics, a first order partial differential equation is a partial differential equation that involves only first derivatives of the unknown function of n variables. ...

$frac{dP}{ds} = 2 n nabla n, ,$

along a system of curves (the light rays) that are given by

$frac{dX}{ds} = P. ,$

These equations for solution of a first-order partial differential equation are identical to the Euler-Lagrange equations if we make the identification

$frac{ds}{dt} = frac{sqrt{ dot X cdot dot X} }{n}. ,$

We conclude that the function ψ is the value of the minimizing integral A as a function of the upper end point. That is, when a family of minimizing curves is constructed, the values of the optical length satisfy the characteristic equation corresponding the wave equation. Hence, solving the associated partial differential equation of first order is equivalent to finding families of solutions of the variational problem. This is the essential content of the Hamilton-Jacobi theory, which applies to more general variational problems. In physics and mathematics, the Hamilton-Jacobi equation (HJE) is a particular canonical transformation of the classical Hamiltonian which results in a first order, non-linear differential equation whose solution describes the behavior of the system. ...

The action principle

The action was defined by Hamilton to be the difference In physics, the action is an integral quantity that is used to determine the evolution of a physical system between two defined states using the calculus of variations. ...

$L = T - U, ,$

where T is the kinetic energy of a mechanical system and U is the potential energy. Hamilton's principle (or the action principle) states that the motion of a mechanical system is such that the action integral

$A[C] = int_{t=t_0}^{t_1} L(X, dot X) dt ,$

is stationary with respect to variations in the path X(t). The Euler-Lagrange equations for this system are known as Lagrange's equations:

$frac{d}{dt} frac{part L}{part dot X} = frac{part L}{part X}, ,$

and they are equivalent to Newton's equations of motion.

The conjugate momenta P are defined by

$P = frac{part L}{part dot X}. ,$

For example, if

$T = frac{1}{2} m dot x^2, ,$

then

$P = m dot x. ,$

Hamiltonian mechanics results if the conjugate momenta are introduced in place of $dot X$ , and the Lagrangian L is replaced by the Hamiltonian H defined by Hamiltonian mechanics is a re-formulation of classical mechanics that was invented in 1833 by William Rowan Hamilton. ...

$H(X,P) = -L(X,dot X) + P cdot dot X.,$

The Hamiltonian is the total energy of the system: H = T + U. Analogy with Fermat's principle suggests that solutions of Lagrange's equations (the particle trajectories) may be described in terms of level surfaces of some function of X. This function is a solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation: The Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) equation is a partial differential equation which is central to optimal control theory. ...

$frac{part psi}{part t} + H(X,nabla psi) =0.,$

Functions of several variables

Variational problems that involve multiple integrals arise in numerous applications. For example, if φ(x,y) denotes the displacement of a membrane above the domain D in the x,y plane, then its potential energy is proportional to its surface area:

$U[varphi] = iint_D sqrt{1 +nabla varphi cdot nabla varphi} dx,dy.,$

Plateau's problem consists of finding a function that minimizes the surface area while assuming prescribed values on the boundary of D; the solutions are called minimal surfaces. The Euler-Lagrange equation for this problem is nonlinear:

$varphi_{xx}(1 + varphi_y^2) + varphi_{yy}(1 + varphi_x^2) - 2varphi_x varphi_y varphi_{xy} = 0.,$

See Courant(1950) for details.

Dirichlet's principle

It is often sufficient to consider only small displacements of the membrane, whose energy difference from no displacement is approximated by

$V[varphi] = frac{1}{2}iint_D nabla varphi cdot nabla varphi , dx, dy.,$

The functional V is to be minimized among all trial functions φ that assume prescribed values on the boundary of D. If u is the minimizing function and v is an arbitrary smooth function that vanishes on the boundary of D, then the first variation of $V [u + ε v]$ must vanish:

$frac{d}{depsilon} V[u + epsilon v]|_{epsilon=0} = iint_D nabla u cdot nabla v , dx,dy = 0.,$

Provided that u has two derivatives, we may apply the divergence theorem to obtain

$iint_D nabla cdot (v nabla u) ,dx,dy = iint_D nabla u cdot nabla v + v nabla cdot nabla u ,dx,dy + int_C v frac{part u}{part n} ds, ,$

where C is the boundary of D, s is arclength along C and $part u / part n$ is the normal derivative of u on C. Since v vanishes on C and the first variation vanishes, the result is

$iint_D vnabla u cdot nabla u ,dx,dy =0 ,$

for all smooth functions v that vanish on the boundary of D. The proof for the case of one dimensional integrals may be adapted to this case to show that

$nabla cdot nabla u= 0 ,$ in D.

The difficulty with this reasoning is the assumption that the minimizing function u must have two derivatives. Riemann argued that the existence of a smooth minimizing function was assured by the connection with the physical problem: membranes do indeed assume configurations with minimal potential energy. Riemann named this idea Dirichlet's principle in honor of his teacher Dirichlet. However Weierstrass gave an example of a variational problem with no solution: minimize Bernhard Riemann. ... Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet (February 13, 1805 - May 5, 1859) was a German mathematician credited with the modern formal definition of a function. ...

$W[varphi] = int_{-1}^{1} (xvarphi')^2 , dx,$

among all functions φ that satisfy $varphi(-1)=-1$ and $varphi(1)=1.$ W can be made arbitrarily small by choosing piecewise linear functions that make a transition between -1 and 1 in a small neighborhood of the origin. However, there is no function that makes W=0. The resulting controversy over the validity of Dirichlet's principle is explained in http://turnbull.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Riemann.html . Eventually it was shown that Dirichlet's principle is valid, but it requires a sophisticated application of the regularity theory for elliptic partial differential equations; see Jost and Li-Jost (1998). In mathematics, an Elliptic operator is a major type of differential operator P defined on spaces of complex-valued functions, or some more general function-like objects, such that the coefficients of the highest-order derivatives satisfy a positivity condition. ...

Generalization to other boundary value problems

A more general expression for the potential energy of a membrane is

$v[varphi] = iint_D left[ frac{1}{2} nabla varphi cdot nabla varphi + f(x,y) varphi right] , dx,dy , + int_C left[ frac{1}{2} sigma(s) varphi^2 + g(s) varphi right] , ds.$

This corresponds to an external force density $f (x, y)$ in D, an external force $g (s)$ on the boundary C, and elastic forces with modulus $σ(s)$ acting on C. The function that minimizes the potential energy with no restriction on its boundary values will be denoted by u. Provided that f and g are continuous, regularity theory implies that the minimizing function u will have two derivatives. In taking the first variation, no boundary condition need be imposed on the increment v. The first variation of $V [u + ε v]$ is given by

$iint_D left[ nabla u cdot nabla v + f v right] , dx, dy + int_C left[ sigma u v + g v right] , ds =0. ,$

If we apply the divergence theorem, the result is

$iint_D left[ -v nabla cdot nabla u + v f right] , dx , dy + int_C v left[ frac{part u}{part n} + sigma u + g right] , ds =0. ,$

If we first set v=0 on C, the boundary integral vanishes, and we conclude as before that

$- nabla cdot nabla u + f =0 ,$

in D. Then if we allow v to assume arbitrary boundary values, this implies that u must satisfy the boundary condition

$frac{part u}{part n} + sigma u + g =0, ,$

on C. Note that this boundary condition is a consequence of the minimizing property of u: it is not imposed beforehand. Such conditions are called natural boundary conditions.

The preceding reasoning is not valid if $σ$ vanishes identically on C. In such a case, we could allow a trial function $varphi equiv c$ , where c is a constant. For such a trial function,

$V[c] = cleft[ iint_D f , dx,dy + int_C g ds right].$

By appropriate choice of c, V can assume any value unless the quantity insider the brackets vanishes. Therefore the variational problem is meaningless unless

$iint_D f , dx,dy + int_C g , ds =0.,$

This condition implies that net external forces on the system are in equilibrium. If these forces are in equilibrium, then the variational problem has a solution, but it is not unique, since an arbitrary constant may be added. Further details and examples are in Courant and Hilbert (1953).

Eigenvalue problems

Both one-dimensional and multi-dimensional eigenvalue problems can be formulated as variational problems.

Sturm-Liouville problems

The Sturm-Liouville eigenvalue problem involves a general quadratic form

$Q[varphi] = int_{x_1}^{x_2} left[ p(x) varphi'(x)^2 + q(x) varphi(x)^2 right] , dx, ,$

where φ is restricted to functions that satisfy the boundary conditions

$varphi(x_1)=0, quad varphi(x_2)=0. ,$

Let R be a normalization integral

$R[varphi] =int_{x_1}^{x_2} r(x)varphi(x)^2 , dx.,$

The functions $p (x)$ and $r (x)$ are required to be everywhere positive and bounded away from zero. The primary variational problem is to minimize the ratio Q/R among all φ satisfying the endpoint conditions. It is shown below that the Euler-Lagrange equation for the minimizing u is

$-(pu')' +q u -lambda r u =0, ,$

where λ is the quotient

$lambda = frac{Q[u]}{R[u]}. ,$

It can be shown (see Gelfand and Fomin 1963) that the minimizing u has two derivatives and satisfies the Euler-Lagrange equation. The associated λ will be denoted by $λ 1$ ; it is the lowest eigenvalue for this equation and boundary conditions. The associated minimizing function will be denoted by $u 1 (x)$ . This variational characterization of eigenvalues leads to the Rayleigh-Ritz method: choose an approximating u as a linear combination of basis functions (for example trigonometric functions) and carry out a finite-dimensional minimization among such linear combinations. This method is often surprisingly accurate.

The next smallest eigenvalue and eigenfunction can be obtained by minimizing Q under the additional constraint

$int_{x_1}^{x_2} r(x) u_1(x) varphi(x) , dx=0. ,$

This procedure can be extended to obtain the complete sequence of eigenvalues and eigenfunctions for the problem.

The variational problem also applies to more general boundary conditions. Instead of requiring that φ vanish at the endpoints, we may not impose any condition at the endpoints, and set

$Q[varphi] = int_{x_1}^{x_2} left[ p(x) varphi'(x)^2 + q(x)varphi(x)^2 right] , dx + a_1 varphi(x_1)^2 + a_2 varphi(x_2)^2, ,$

where $a 1$ and $a 2$ are arbitrary. If we set $varphi = u + epsilon v$ the first variation for the ratio $Q / R$ is

$V_1 = frac{2}{R[u]} left( int_{x_1}^{x_2} left[ p(x) u'(x)v'(x) + q(x)u(x)v(x) -lambda u(x) v(x) right] , dx + a_1 u(x_1)v(x_1) + a_2 u(x_2)v(x_2) right) , ,$

where λ is given by the ratio $Q [u] / R [u]$ as previously. After integration by parts,

$frac{R[u]}{2} V_1 = int_{x_1}^{x_2} v(x) left[ -(p u')' + q u -lambda r u right] , dx + v(x_1)[ -p(x_1)u'(x_1) + a_1 u(x_1)] + v(x_2) [p(x_2 u'(x_2) + a_2 u(x_2). ,$

If we first require that v vanish at the endpoints, the first variation will vanish for all such v only if

$-(p u')' + q u -lambda r u =0 quad hbox{for} quad x_1 < x < x_2.,$

If u satisfies this condition, then the first variation will vanish for arbitrary v only if

$-p(x_1)u'(x_1) + a_1 u(x_1)=0, quad hbox{and} quad p(x_2 u'(x_2) + a_2 u(x_2)=0.,$

These latter conditions are the natural boundary conditions for this problem, since they are not imposed on trial functions for the minimization, but are instead a consequence of the minimization.

Eigenvalue problems in several dimensions

Eigenvalue problems in higher dimensions are defined in analogy with the one-dimensional case. For example, given a domain D with boundary B in three dimensions we may define

$Q[varphi] = iiint_D p(X) nabla varphi cdot nabla varphi + q(X) varphi^2 , dx , dy , dz + iint_B sigma(S) varphi^2 , dS, ,$

and

$R[varphi] = iiint_D r(X) varphi(X)^2 , dx , dy , dz.,$

Let u be the function that minimizes the quotient $Q[varphi] / R[varphi],$ with no condition prescribed on the boundary B. The Euler-Lagrange equation satisfied by u is

$-nabla cdot (p(X) nabla u) + q(x) u - lambda r(x) u=0,,$

where

$lambda = frac{Q[u]}{R[u]}.,$

The minimizing u must also satisfy the natural boundary condition

$p(S) frac{part u}{part n} + sigma(S) u =0,$

on the boundary B. This result depends upon the regularity theory for elliptic partial differential equations; see Jost and Li-Jost (1998) for details. Many extensions, including completeness results, asymptotic properties of the eigenvalues and results concerning the nodes of the eigenfunctions are in Courant and Hilbert (1953).

Reference books

Gelfand, I.M. and Fomin, S.V.: Calculus of Variations, Dover Publ., 2000
Lebedev, L.P. and Cloud, M.J.: The Calculus of Variations and Functional Analysis with Optimal Control and Applications in Mechanics, World Scientific, 2003, pages 1-98
Charles Fox: An Introduction to the Calculus of Variations, Dover Publ., 1987
Forsyth, A.R.: Calculus of Variations, Dover, 1960
Sagan, Hans: Introduction to the Calculus of Variations, Dover, 1992
Weinstock, Robert: Calculus of Variations with Applications to Physics and Engineering, Dover, 1974
Clegg, J.C.: Calculus of Variations, Interscience Publishers Inc., 1968
Courant, R.: Dirichlet's principle, conformal mapping and minimal surfaces. Interscience, 1950.
Courant, R. and D. Hilbert: Methods of Mathematical Physics, Vol I. Interscience Press, 1953.
Elsgolc, L.E.: Calculus of Variations, Pergamon Press Ltd., 1962
Jost, J. and X. Li-Jost: Calculus of Variations. Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Israel Moiseevich Gelfand (Russian: ) (born in 1913) is a prolific mathematician in the field of functional analysis, which he interprets in a broad sense as the mathematics of quantum mechanics. ... Sergei Vasilovich Fomin (9 December 1917 â€“ 17 August 1975) was a Russian mathematician who, among his other accomplishments was a co-author with Kolmogorov of Introductory real analysis, a book that is widely read in Russian and English. ...

References

Johan Byström, Lars-Erik Persson, and Fredrik Strömberg, Chapter III: Introduction to the calculus of variations (undated).
Calculus of variations on PlanetMath
Eric W. Weisstein, Calculus of Variations at MathWorld.
Calculus of variations example problems.
Chapter 8: Calculus of Variations, from Optimization for Engineering Systems, by Ralph W. Pike, Louisiana State University

Categories: Calculus of variations | Fundamental physics concepts | Mathematical analysis | Optimization PlanetMath is a free, collaborative, online mathematics encyclopedia. ... Dr. Eric W. Weisstein Encyclopedist Dr. Eric W. Weisstein (born March 18, 1969, in Bloomington, Indiana) is a noted encyclopedist in several technical areas of science and mathematics. ... MathWorld is an online mathematics reference work, sponsored by Wolfram Research Inc. ... For other uses, see LSU. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, generally known as Louisiana State University or LSU, is a public, coeducational university located in Baton Rouge, Louisiana and the main campus of the Louisiana State University System. ...

Results from FactBites:

Calculus of variations - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (1229 words)
	Calculus of variations is a field of mathematics that deals with functions of functions, as opposed to ordinary calculus which deals with functions of numbers.
	The theory of optimal control is a generalization of the calculus of variations.
	Fomin, S.V. and Gelfand, I.M. : Calculus of Variations, Dover Publ., 2000

calculus of variations - definition of calculus of variations in Encyclopedia (323 words)
	Calculus of variations is a field of mathematics which deals with functions of functions, as opposed to ordinary calculus which deals with functions of numbers.
	The key theorem of calculus of variations is the Euler-Lagrange equation.
	Variational methods are important in theoretical physics: in Lagrangian mechanics and in application of the principle of stationary action to quantum mechanics.

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