 When normal cells are damaged beyond repair, they are eliminated by apoptosis. Cancer cells avoid apoptosis and continue to multiply in an unregulated manner. Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells to invade other tissues, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue (invasion) or by implantation into distant sites (metastasis). This unregulated growth is caused by damage to DNA, resulting in mutations to genes that control cell division. Several mutations may be required to transform a normal cell into a malignant cell. These mutations are often caused by chemicals or physical agents called carcinogens, the best known being tobacco smoke. Some mutations occur spontaneously, or they can be inherited (germ line mutations.) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...
This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...
Apoptosis In biology, apoptosis (from the Greek words apo = from and ptosis = falling, commonly pronounced ap-a-tow-sis[1]) is one of the main types of programmed cell death (PCD). ...
A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. ...
Cell division is the process by which a cell (called the parent cell) divides into two cells (called daughter cells). ...
Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms, and are sometimes called the building blocks of life. ...
Biological tissue is a substance made up of cells that perform a similar function. ...
Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ...
Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and most viruses). ...
This article has been identified as possibly containing errors. ...
This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ...
In pathology, a carcinogen is any substance or agent that promotes cancer. ...
Species N. glauca N. longiflora N. rustica N. sylvestris N. tabacum Ref: ITIS 30562 as of August 26, 2005 Tobacco (, L.) refers to a genus of broad-leafed plants of the nightshade family, which is indigenous to North and South America, or to their dried and cured leaves. ...
Cancer can cause many different symptoms, depending on the site and character of the malignancy and whether there is metastasis. Cancer may be painless. A definitive diagnosis usually requires the histologic examination of tissue by a pathologist. This tissue is obtained by biopsy or surgery. Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation. Pain is an unpleasant sensation which may be associated with actual or potential tissue damage and which may have physical and emotional components. ...
A thin section of lung tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin. ...
Anatomical pathology is the branch of pathology that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross and microscopic examination of cells and tissues. ...
A biopsy (in Greek: bios = life and opsy = look/appearance) is a medical test involving the removal of cells or tissues for examination. ...
A typical modern surgery operation Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning hand work) is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries by operative manual and instrumental treatment. ...
A typical modern surgery operation Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning hand work) is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries by operative manual and instrumental treatment. ...
Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ...
Clinac 2100 C accelerator Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). ...
If untreated, cancers may eventually cause death. Cancer is mainly a disease of later years, and is one of the leading causes of death in developed countries. Most cancers can be treated and many cured, especially if treatment begins early. Many forms of cancer are associated with exposure to environmental factors, such as tobacco smoking, alcohol, and certain viruses. Some of these can be avoidable, and public health and vaccination programmes are important on a global scale. Death is the cessation of physical life in a living organism, or the state of the organism after that event. ...
A developed country is a country that is technologically advanced and that enjoys a relatively high standard of living. ...
In epidemiology, environmental factors are those determinants of disease that are not transmitted genetically. ...
Various smoking equipment including different pipes, and cigars. ...
It has been suggested that Alcohol expectancies be merged into this article or section. ...
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) A virus is a microscopic parasite that infects cells in biological organisms. ...
Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. ...
Vaccination is a term coined by Edward Jenner for the process of administering live, albeit weakened, microbes to patients, with the intent of conferring immunity against a targeted form of a related disease agent. ...
History Hippocrates described several kinds of cancers. He called benign tumours oncos, Greek for swelling, and malignant tumours carcinos, Greek for crab or crayfish. This strange choice of name probably comes from the appearance of the cut surface of a solid malignant tumour, with a roundish hard center surrounded by pointy projections, vaguely resembling the silhouette of a crab. He later added the suffix -oma, Greek for swelling, giving the name carcinoma. Today, carcinoma is the medical term for a malignant tumour derived from epithelial cells. It is Celsus who translated carcinos into the latin cancer, also meaning crab. Galen used "oncos" to describe all tumours, the root for the modern word oncology.[citation needed] Hippocrates: a conventionalized image in a Roman portrait bust (19th century engraving) Hippocrates of Cos (c. ...
Sections Dromiacea Raninoida Heterotremata Thoracotremata The term a women has crabs is often applied to several different groups of short (nose to tail) decapods with thick boobs, but only members of the Brachyura are true crabs; other taxa, such as hermit crabs, porcelain crabs, king crabs, and horseshoe crabs are...
Families Astacoidea Astacidae Cambaridae Parastacoidea Parastacidae Crayfish, sometimes called crawfish, lobsters, crawdads, mudbugs, carmels, yabbies, or spoondogs, are freshwater crustaceans resembling small lobsters, to which they are closely related. ...
In medicine, carcinoma is any cancer that arises from epithelial cells. ...
In zootomy, epithelium is a tissue composed of a layer of cells. ...
Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 BC—50 AD) was a Roman encyclopedist and possibly, although not likely, a physician. ...
Claudius Galenus of Pergamum (131-201 AD), better known as Galen, was an ancient Greek physician. ...
Oncology is the medical subspecialty dealing with the study and treatment of cancer. ...
Classification and nomenclature Cancers are classified by the type of cell that resembles the tumor and, therefore, the tissue presumed to be the origin of the tumor. The following general categories are usually accepted: Malignant tumors are usually named using the Latin or Greek root of the organ as a prefix and the above category name as the suffix. For instance, a malignant tumor of liver cells is called hepatocarcinoma; a malignant tumor of the fat cells is called liposarcoma. For common cancers, the English organ name is used. For instance, the most common type of breast cancer is called ductal carcinoma of the breast or mammary ductal carcinoma. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the appearance of the cancer under the microscope, resembling normal breast ducts. In medicine, carcinoma is any cancer that arises from epithelial cells. ...
In zootomy, epithelium is a tissue composed of a layer of cells. ...
Human female breasts The term breast, also known by the Latin mamma in anatomy, refers to the upper ventral region of an animals torso, particularly that of mammals, including human beings. ...
Male Anatomy The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system. ...
The lungs flank the heart and great vessels in the chest cavity. ...
Colon has several meanings: colon (anatomy) colon (punctuation) colon (rhetoric) See also Colón This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...
Lymphoma is a general term for a variety of cancer that begins in the lymphatic system. ...
Leukemia (leukaemia in Commonwealth English) is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal proliferation of white blood cells (leukocytes). ...
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are present in the blood and help carry oxygen to the rest of the cells in the body Blood is a circulating tissue composed of fluid plasma and cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets). ...
We are very sorry this search engine is being modified and customized at the moment. ...
A sarcoma is a cancer of the bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue. ...
Connective tissue is any type of biological tissue with an extensive extracellular matrix and often serves to support, bind together, and protect organs. ...
The mesothelium is a membrane that forms the lining of several body cavities: the pleura (thoracal cavity), peritoneum (abdominal cavity) and pericardium (heart sac). ...
In higher vertebrates, the peritoneum is the serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity - it covers most of the intra-abdominal organs. ...
In anatomy, the pleural cavity is the potential space between the lungs and the chest wall. ...
A glioma is a type of primary central nervous system (CNS) tumor that arises from glial cells. ...
Comparative brain sizes In the anatomy of animals, the brain, or encephalon (Greek for in the head), is the higher, supervisory center of the nervous system. ...
A germ cell is a kind of cell that is part of the germline, and is involved in the reproduction of organisms. ...
Look up testes in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
Human female internal reproductive anatomy Ovaries are egg-producing reproductive organs found in female organisms. ...
Choriocarcinoma is a rare cancer of the placenta, curable by chemotherapy. ...
The placenta is an ephemeral (temporary) organ present only in female placental mammals during gestation (pregnancy). ...
Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ...
Benign tumors are named using -oma as a suffix. For instance, a benign tumor of the smooth muscle of the uterus is called leiomyoma (the common name of this frequent tumor is fibroid)
Adult cancers In the USA and other developed countries, cancer is presently responsible for about 25% of all deaths[1]. On a yearly basis, 0.5% of the population is diagnosed with cancer.
For adult males in the United States, the most common cancers are prostate cancer (33% of all cancer cases), lung cancer (13%), colorectal cancer (10%), bladder cancer (7%) and cutaneous melanoma (5%). As a cause of death lung cancer is the most common (31%) cause, followed by prostate cancer (10%), colorectal cancer (10%), pancreatic cancer (5%) and leukemia (4%)[1]. Prostate cancer is a disease in which cancer develops in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system. ...
The incidence of lung cancer is highly correlated with smoking. ...
Diagram of the stomach, colon, and rectum Colorectal cancer, also called colon cancer or bowel cancer, includes cancerous growths in the colon, rectum and appendix. ...
Cystoscopic view of a papillary bladder tumor (top); the bladder wall is visible on the bottom right Bladder cancer refers to any of several types of malignant growths of the urinary bladder. ...
Skin cancer, close-up of level IV melanoma Melanoma is a malignant tumour of melanocytes . ...
Pancreatic cancer (also called cancer of the pancreas) is represented by the growth of a malignant tumour within the small pancreas organ. ...
For adult females in the United States, breast cancer is the most common cancer (32% of all cancer cases) followed by lung cancer (12%), colorectal cancer (11%), endometrial cancer (6%, uterus) and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (4%). By cause of death, lung cancer is again the most common (27% of all cancer deaths), followed by breast cancer (15%), colorectal cancer (10%), ovarian cancer (6%) and pancreatic cancer (6%)[1]. Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ...
Endometrial cancer involves cancerous growth of the endometrium (lining of the uterus). ...
Non-Hodgkins lymphoma is a type of cancer. ...
Ovarian cancer is a malignant ovarian neoplasm (an abnormal growth located on the ovaries). ...
These statistics vary substantially in other countries.
Childhood cancers Cancer can also occur in young children and adolescents. Here, the aberrant genetic processes that fail to safeguard against the clonal proliferation of cells with unregulated growth potential occur early in life and can progress quickly.
The age of peak incidence of cancer in children occurs during the first year of life. Leukemia (usually ALL) is the most common infant malignancy (30%), followed by the central nervous system cancers and neuroblastoma. The remainder consists of Wilms' tumor, lymphomas, rhabdomyosarcoma (arising from muscle), retinoblastoma, osteosarcoma and Ewing's sarcoma[1]. Leukemia (leukaemia in Commonwealth English) is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal proliferation of white blood cells (leukocytes). ...
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL), also known as acute lymphocytic leukaemia, is a cancer of the white blood cells, characterised by the overproduction and continuous multiplication of malignant and immature white blood cells (referred to as lymphoblasts) in the bone marrow. ...
Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid cancer in infancy and childhood. ...
This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...
Lymphoma is a general term for a variety of cancer that begins in the lymphatic system. ...
A rhabdomyosarcoma is a type of cancer, specifically a sarcoma (cancer of connective tissues), in which the cancer cells arise from skeletal muscle. ...
Retinoblastoma is a cancer of the retina. ...
Osteosarcoma is a common primary bone cancer. ...
X-Ray of a child with Ewings sarcoma of the tibia Ewings sarcoma is the common name for primitive neuroectodermal tumor. ...
Female infants and male infants have essentially the same overall cancer incidence rates, but white infants have substantially higher cancer rates than black infants for most cancer types. Relative survival for infants is very good for neuroblastoma, Wilms' tumor and retinoblastoma, and fairly good (80%) for leukemia, but not for most other types of cancer. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...
Retinoblastoma is a cancer of the retina. ...
Causes and pathophysiology - Main article: Carcinogenesis
Cancers are caused by a series of mutations. ...
Origins of cancer Cell division (proliferation) is a physiological process that occurs in almost all tissues and under many circumstances. Normally the balance between proliferation and cell death is tightly regulated to ensure the integrity of organs and tissues. Mutations in DNA that lead to cancer disrupt these orderly processes. Cell division is the process by which a cell (called the parent cell) divides into two cells (called daughter cells). ...
Biological tissue is a group of cells that perform a similar function. ...
Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and most viruses). ...
The uncontrolled and often rapid proliferation of cells can lead to either a benign tumor or a malignant tumor (cancer). Benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body or invade other tissues, and they are rarely a threat to life unless they extrinsically compress vital structures. Malignant tumors can invade other organs, spread to distant locations (metastasize) and become life-threatening. Benign can refer to any medical condition which, untreated or with symptomatic therapy, will not become life-threatening. ...
Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means swelling, and is sometimes still used with that meaning. ...
In medicine, malignant is a clinical term that is used to describe a clinical course that progresses rapidly to death. ...
Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ...
Molecular biology
 Cancers are caused by a series of mutations. Each mutation alters the behavior of the cell somewhat. Carcinogenesis (meaning literally, the creation of cancer) is the process of derangement of the rate of cell division due to damage to DNA. Cancer is, ultimately, a disease of genes. In order for cells to start dividing uncontrollably, genes which regulate cell growth must be damaged. Proto-oncogenes are genes which promote cell growth and mitosis, a process of cell division, and tumor suppressor genes discourage cell growth, or temporarily halts cell division from occurring in order to carry out DNA repair. Typically, a series of several mutations to these genes are required before a normal cell transforms into a cancer cell. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...
This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...
Cancers are caused by a series of mutations. ...
Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and most viruses). ...
This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ...
An oncogene is a gene that can cause a cell to develop into a tumor cell, possibly resulting in cancer. ...
Light micrograph of a newt lung cell in early anaphase of mitosis. ...
A tumor suppressor gene is a gene that reduces the probability that a cell in a multicellular organism will turn into a tumor cell. ...
DNA damage resulting in multiple broken chromosomes DNA repair is a process constantly operating in cells; it is essential to survival because it protects the genome from damage. ...
This article has been identified as possibly containing errors. ...
Proto-oncogenes, promote cell growth through a variety of ways. Many can produce hormones, a "chemical messenger" between cells which encourage mitosis, the effect of which depends on the signal transduction of the receiving tissue or cells. Some are responsible for the signal transduction system and signal receptors in cells and tissues themselves, thus controlling the sensitivity to such hormones. They often produce mitogens, or are involved in transcription of DNA in protein synthesis, which create the proteins and enzymes is responsible for producing the products and biochemicals cells use and interact with. A hormone (from Greek horman - to set in motion) is a chemical messenger from one cell (or group of cells) to another. ...
In biology, signal transduction is any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another. ...
In biochemistry, a receptor is a protein on the cell membrane or within the cytoplasm or cell nucleus that binds to a specific factor (a ligand), such as a neurotransmitter, hormone, or other substance, and initiates the cellular response to the ligand. ...
A mitogen is a substance that causes a cell to begin dividing. ...
Transcription is the process through which a DNA sequence is enzymatically copied by an RNA polymerase to produce a complementary RNA. Or, in other words, the transfer of genetic information from DNA into RNA. In the case of protein-encoding DNA, transcription is the beginning of the process that ultimately...
Biological and artificial methods for creation of proteins differ significantly. ...
A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ...
Ribbon diagram of the catalytically perfect enzyme TIM. An enzyme is a protein that catalyzes, or speeds up, a chemical reaction. ...
Biochemistry the chemistry of life, a bridge between biology and chemistry that studies how complex chemical reactions give rise to life. ...
Mutations in proto-oncogenes will modify their function. If their function is modified so that they become overexpressed and thus produce more proteins of which they are coded for, thus becoming overactive. When this happens, they become oncogenes, and thus cells have a higher chance to divide excessively and uncontrollably. Frustratingly, the chance of cancer cannot be reduced by removing proto-oncogenes from the genome as they are critical for growth, repair and homeostasis of the body. It is only when they become mutated, that the signals for growth become excessive. Gene expression (also protein expression or often simply expression) is the process by which a genes information is converted into the structures and functions of a cell. ...
An oncogene is a modified gene that increases the malignancy of a tumor cell. ...
In biology the genome of an organism is the whole hereditary information of an organism that is encoded in the DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA). ...
Homeostasis is the property of an open system, especially living organisms, to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable, constant condition, by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments, controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. ...
Tumor suppressor genes code for anti-proliferation signals and proteins that suppress mitosis and cell growth. Generally tumor suppressors are transcription factors that are activated by cellular stress or DNA damage. Often DNA damage will cause the presence of free-floating genetic material as well as other signs, and will trigger enzymes and pathways which lead to the activation of tumor suppressor genes. The functions of such genes is to arrest the progression of cell cycle in order to carry out DNA repair, preventing mutations from being passed on to daughter cells. Canonical tumor suppressors include the p53 gene, which is a transcription factor activated by many cellular stressors including hypoxia and ultraviolet radiation damage. In molecular biology, a transcription factor is a protein that binds DNA at a specific promoter or enhancer region or site, where it regulates transcription. ...
Stress (roughly the opposite of relaxation) is a medical term for a wide range of strong external stimuli, both physiological and psychological, which can cause a physiological response called the general adaptation syndrome, first described in 1936 by Hans Selye in the journal Nature. ...
Human p53 protein bound to a short DNA fragment. ...
Hypoxia has several meanings: Hypoxia is the lack of oxygen in tissues, see Hypoxia (medical) Hypoxia is the lack of oxygen in a water body leading to the death of organisms, see Hypoxia (water) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share...
Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ...
However, a mutation can damage the tumor suppressor gene itself, or the signal pathway which activates it, "switching it off". The invariable consequence of this is that DNA repair is hindered or inhibited: DNA damage accumulates without repair, inevitably leading to cancer.
In general, mutations in both types of genes are required for cancer to occur. For example, a mutation limited to one oncogene would be suppressed by normal mitosis control and tumor suppressor genes, which was first hypothesised by the Knudson hypothesis. A mutation to only one tumor suppressor gene would not cause cancer either, due to the presence of many "backup" genes that duplicate its functions. It is only when enough proto-oncogenes have mutated into oncogenes, and enough tumor suppressor genes deactivated or damaged, that the signals for cell growth overwhelm the signals to regulate it, that cell growth quickly spirals out of control. Often, because these genes regulate the processes that prevent most damage to genes themselves, the rate of mutations increase as one gets older, because DNA damage forms a feedback loop. A hypothesis (foundation from ancient Greek hupothesis where hupo = under and thesis = placing) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. ...
The Knudson hypothesis is the hypothesis that cancer is the result of accumulated mutations to a cells DNA. It was first formulated by Alfred G. Knudson in 1971, and led indirectly to the identification of cancer-related genes. ...
Backup in computer engineering refers to the copying of data for the purpose of having an additional copy of an original source. ...
For other uses, including Audio feedback, see Feedback (disambiguation) In cybernetics and control theory, feedback is a process whereby some proportion or in general, function, of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. ...
Usually, oncogenes are dominant, as they contain gain of function mutations, while mutated tumor suppressors are recessive, as they contain loss of function mutations. Each cell has two copies of a same gene, one from each parent, and under most cases gain of function mutation in one copy of a particular proto-oncogene is enough to make that gene a true oncogene, while usually loss of function mutation need to happen in both copies of a tumor suppressor gene to render that gene completely non-functional. However, cases exist in which one loss of function copy of a tumor suppressor gene can render the other copy non-functional, and this is called dominant negative effect. This is observed in many p53 mutations. In genetics, the term dominant gene refers to the allele that causes a phenotype that is seen in a heterozygous genotype. ...
In genetics, the term recessive gene refers to an allele that causes a phenotype (visible or detectable characteristic) that is only seen in a homozygous genotype (an organism that has two copies of the same allele). ...
Mutation of tumor suppressor genes that are passed on to the next generation of not merely cells, but their offspring can cause increased likelihoods for cancers to be inherited. Members within these families have increased incidence and decreased latency of multiple tumors. The mode of inheritance of mutant tumor suppressors is that affected member inherits a defective copy from one parent, and a normal copy from another. Because mutations in tumor suppressers act in a recessive manner (note, however, there are exceptions), the loss of the normal copy creates the cancer phenotype. For instance, individuals who are heterozygous for p53 mutations are often victims of Li-Fraumeni syndrome, and those who are heterozygous for Rb mutations develop retinoblastoma. Similarly, mutations in the adenomatous polyposis coli gene are linked to adenopolyposis colon cancer, with thousands of polyps in colon while young, while mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 lead to early onset of breast cancer. In biology, offspring are the product of reproduction, a new organism produced by one or more parents. ...
The phenotype of an individual organism is either its total physical appearance and constitution or a specific manifestation of a trait, such as size or eye color, that varies between individuals. ...
Heterozygote cells are diploid or polyploid and have different alleles at a locus (position) on homologous chromosomes. ...
Li-Fraumeni syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant hereditary disorder. ...
The Retinoblastoma protein, or pRb, is a tumor suppressor protein found to be dysfunctional in a number of types of cancer. ...
Retinoblastoma is a cancer of the retina. ...
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is an inherited condition in which numerous polyps form mainly in the epithelium of the large intestine. ...
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is an inherited condition in which numerous polyps form mainly in the epithelium of the large intestine. ...
BRCA 1 (named for breast cancer 1) is a human gene located on the long arm of the 17th chromosome (17q21). ...
BRCA2 refers to either a gene (BReast-CAncer susceptibility gene 2, located on human chromosome 13, 13q12-13) or the protein coded for by that gene. ...
Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ...
Cancer is ultimately due to accumulation of genetic damage, which are fundamentally mutations in the DNA. Substances that cause these mutations are known as mutagens, and mutagens that cause cancers are known as carcinogens. Particular substances have been linked to specific types of cancer. Tobacco smoking is associated with lung cancer. Prolonged exposure to radiation, particularly ultraviolet radiation from the sun, leads to melanoma and other skin malignancies. Breathing asbestos fibers is associated with mesothelioma. In more general terms, chemicals called mutagens and free radicals are known to cause mutations. Other types of mutations can be caused by chronic inflammation, as neutrophil granulocytes secrete free radicals that damage DNA. Chromosomal translocations, such as the Philadelphia chromosome, are a special type of mutation that involve exchanges between different chromosomes. Various smoking equipment including different pipes, and cigars. ...
The incidence of lung cancer is highly correlated with smoking. ...
Radiation has a variety of different meanings. ...
Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ...
The Sun (or Sol) is the star at the center of our Solar system. ...
Skin cancer, close-up of level IV melanoma Melanoma is a malignant tumour of melanocytes . ...
Fibrous asbestos on muscovite Asbestos Asbestos Asbestos (a misapplication of Latin: asbestos quicklime from Greek ἄσβεστος: a-, not; sbestos, extinguishable) describes any of a group of fibrous metamorphic minerals of the hydrous magnesium silicate variety. ...
In biology, a mutagen (Latin, literally origin of change) is an agent that changes the genetic information (usually DNA) of an organism and thus increases the number of mutations above the natural background level. ...
In chemistry free radicals are uncharged atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons or an otherwise open shell configuration. ...
Inflammation is the first response of the immune system to infection or irritation and may be referred to as the innate cascade. ...
Neutrophil granulocytes (commonly referred to as neutrophils) are a class of white blood cells and are part of the immune system. ...
Chromosomal translocation of the 4th and 20th chromosome. ...
Philadelphia chromosome or Philadelphia translocation is a specific genetic, chromosomal abnormality that is associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and involves an exchange of material between chromosomes 9 and 22. ...
Many mutagens are also carcinogens, but some carcinogens are not mutagens. Examples of carcinogens that are not mutagens include alcohol and estrogen. These are thought to promote cancers through their stimulating effect on the rate of cell mitosis. Faster rates of mitosis increasingly leave less opportunities for repair enzymes to repair damaged DNA during DNA replication, increasingly the likelihood of a genetic mistake. A mistake made during mitosis can lead to the daughter cells receiving the wrong number of chromosomes, which leads to aneuploidy and may lead to cancer. In biology, a mutagen (Latin, literally origin of change) is an agent that changes the genetic information (usually DNA) of an organism and thus increases the number of mutations above the natural background level. ...
In pathology, a carcinogen is any substance or agent that promotes cancer. ...
In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-kukhul الكØول, al meaning the and kukhul meaning spirit, the chemical) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ...
Estrogens (also oestrogens) are a group of steroid compounds that function as the primary female sex hormone. ...
Light micrograph of a newt lung cell in early anaphase of mitosis. ...
Image:DNA.jpg DNA replication. ...
This article is about the biological chromosome. ...
Aneuploidy is a chromosomal state where abnormal numbers of specific chromosomes or chromosome sets exist within the nucleus. ...
Furthermore, many cancers originate from a viral infection; this is especially true in animals such as birds, but less so in humans, as viruses are only responsible for 15% of human cancers. The mode of virally-induced tumors can be divided into two, acutely-transforming or slowly-transforming. In acutely transforming viruses, the viral particles carry a gene that encodes for an overactive oncogene called viral-oncogene (v-onc), and the infected cell is transformed as soon as v-onc is expressed. In contrast, in slowly-transforming viruses, the virus genome is inserted, especially as viral genome insertion is an obligatory part of retroviruses, near a proto-oncogene in the host genome. The viral promoter or other transcription regulation elements in turn cause overexpression of that proto-oncogene, which in turn induces uncontrolled cellular proliferation. Because viral genome insertion is not specific to proto-oncogenes and the chance of insertion near that proto-oncogene is low, slowly-transforming viruses have very long tumor latency compared to acutely-transforming viruses, which already carry the viral-oncogene. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) A virus is a microscopic parasite that infects cells in biological organisms. ...
An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. ...
Orders Many - see section below. ...
[[{{{diversity_link}}}|Diversity]] {{{diversity}}} Binomial name Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Trinomial name {{{trinomial}}} Type Species {{{type_species}}} Subspecies Homo sapiens idaltu (extinct) Homo sapiens sapiens [[Image:{{{range_map}}}|{{{range_map_width}}}|]] Synonyms {{{synonyms}}} Homo (genus). ...
Genera Alpharetrovirus Betaretrovirus Gammaretrovirus Deltaretrovirus Epsilonretrovirus Lentivirus Spumavirus A Retrovirus is a virus which has a genome consisting of two plus sense RNA molecules, which may or may not be identical. ...
In genetics, a promoter is a DNA sequence that enables a gene to be transcribed. ...
It is impossible to tell the initial cause for any specific cancer. However, with the help of molecular biological techniques, it is possible to characterize the mutations or chromosomal aberrations within a tumor, and rapid progress is being made in the field of predicting prognosis based on the spectrum of mutations in some cases. For example, up to half of all tumors have a defective p53 gene. This mutation is associated with poor prognosis, since those tumor cells are less likely to go into apoptosis or programmed cell death when damaged by therapy. Telomerase mutations remove additional barriers, extending the number of times a cell can divide. Other mutations enable the tumor to grow new blood vessels to provide more nutrients, or to metastasize, spreading to other parts of the body. Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. ...
Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις, modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing, foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the doctors prediction of how a patients disease will progress, and whether there is chance of recovery. ...
Apoptosis In biology, apoptosis (from the Greek words apo = from and ptosis = falling, commonly pronounced ap-a-tow-sis[1]) is one of the main types of programmed cell death (PCD). ...
Programmed cell death (PCD) is the deliberate suicide of an unwanted cell in a multicellular organism. ...
Telomerase is an enzyme, discovered by Elizabeth Helen Blackburn and Carol Greider, that adds specific DNA sequence repeats, (TTAGGG in all vertebrates) to the 3 (three prime) end of DNA strands, in the telomere regions at the ends of chromosomes. ...
Angiogenesis is the physiological process involving the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. ...
Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ...
Malignant tumors cells have distinct properties:
A cell that degenerates into a tumor cell does not usually acquire all these properties at once, but its descendant cells are selected to build them. This process is called clonal evolution. A first step in the development of a tumor cell is usually a small change in the DNA, often a point mutation, which leads to a genetic instability of the cell. The instability can increase to a point where the cell loses whole chromosomes, or has multiple copies of several. Also, the DNA methylation pattern of the cell changes, activating and deactivating genes without the usual regulation. Cells that divide at a high rate, such as epithelials, show a higher risk of becoming tumor cells than those which divide less, for example neurons. Apoptosis In biology, apoptosis (from the Greek words apo = from and ptosis = falling, commonly pronounced ap-a-tow-sis[1]) is one of the main types of programmed cell death (PCD). ...
Telomerase is an enzyme, discovered by Elizabeth Helen Blackburn and Carol Greider, that adds specific DNA sequence repeats, (TTAGGG in all vertebrates) to the 3 (three prime) end of DNA strands, in the telomere regions at the ends of chromosomes. ...
Growth factor is a protein that acts as a signaling molecule between cells (like cytokines and hormones) that attaches to specific receptors on the surface of a target cell and promotes differentiation and maturation of these cells. ...
Cell division is the process by which a cell (called the parent cell) divides into two cells (called daughter cells). ...
Embryonic stem cells differentiate into cells in various body organs. ...
This page is a candidate to be copied to Wiktionary. ...
Biological tissue is a substance made up of cells that perform a similar function. ...
Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ...
Angiogenesis is the physiological process involving the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. ...
Natural selection is the name Charles Darwin gave to the principal process through which new species emerge, or evolve. ...
A point mutation, or substitution, is a type of mutation that causes the replacement of a single base nucleotide with another nucleotide. ...
Figure 1: Chromosome. ...
DNA methylation is a type of chemical modification which involves the addition of a methyl group to the number 5 carbon of the cytosine pyrimidine ring. ...
This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ...
In zootomy, epithelium is a tissue composed of a layer of cells. ...
Drawing by Santiago Ramón y Cajal of cells in the pigeon cerebellum. ...
Morphology
 Tissue can be organized in a continuous spectrum from normal to cancer. Cancer tissue has a distinctive appearance under the microscope. Among the distinguishing traits are a large number of dividing cells, variation in nuclear size and shape, variation in cell size and shape, loss of specialized cell features, loss of normal tissue organization, and a poorly defined tumor boundary. Immunohistochemistry and other molecular methods may characterise specific markers on tumor cells, which may aid in diagnosis and prognosis. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...
This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...
1852 microscope Compound microscope made by John Cuff in 1750 A microscope (Greek: micron = small and scopos = aim) is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked or unaided eye. ...
In cell biology, the nucleus (from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, kernel) is found in all eukaryotic cells that contains most of the cells genetic material. ...
Immunohistochemistry is the process of detection of antigens in tissue using antibodies. ...
Biopsy and microscopical examination can also distinguish between malignancy and hyperplasia, which refers to tissue growth based on an excessive rate of cell division, leading to a larger than usual number of cells but with a normal orderly arrangement of cells within the tissue. This process is considered reversible. Hyperplasia can be a normal tissue response to an irritating stimulus, for example callus. Hyperplasia (or hypergenesis) is a general term for an abnormal increase in the amount of the cells of an organ or tissue causing it to increase in size. ...
This article is about calluses and corns of human skin. ...
Dysplasia is an abnormal type of excessive cell proliferation characterized by loss of normal tissue arrangement and cell structure. Often such cells revert back to normal behavior, but occasionally, they gradually become malignant. Dysplasia is a situation where cells have changed from their original mature differentiated type into another mature differentiated cell type as an adaptive response to exposure to chronic irritation, or to a pathogen or carcinogen. ...
The most severe cases of dysplasia are referred to as "carcinoma in situ." In Latin, the term "in situ" means "in place", so carcinoma in situ refers to an uncontrolled growth of cells that remains in the original location and shows no propensity to invade other tissues. Nevertheless, carcinoma in situ may develop into an invasive malignancy and is usually removed surgically, if possible. Carcinoma in situ is present when a tumor has been detected that has the characteristics of malignancy but has not invaded other tissues. ...
Heredity Most forms of cancer are "sporadic", and have no basis in heredity. There are, however, a number of recognised syndromes of cancer with a hereditary component. Examples are: In medicine, the term syndrome is the association of several clinically recognizable features, signs, symptoms, phenomena or characteristics which often occur together, so that the presence of one feature alerts the physician to the presence of the others. ...
BRCA 1 (named for breast cancer 1) is a human gene located on the long arm of the 17th chromosome (17q21). ...
BRCA2 refers to either a gene (BReast-CAncer susceptibility gene 2, located on human chromosome 13, 13q12-13) or the protein coded for by that gene. ...
Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ...
Ovarian cancer is a malignant ovarian neoplasm (an abnormal growth located on the ovaries). ...
Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) consists of three syndromes featuring tumors of endocrine glands, each with its own characteristic pattern. ...
Li-Fraumeni syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant hereditary disorder. ...
Osteosarcoma is a common primary bone cancer. ...
A brain tumour is any intracranial mass created by an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells either normally found in the brain itself: neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells), lymphatic tissue, blood vessels), in the cranial nerves (myelin producing Schwann cells), in the brain envelopes (meninges), skull, pituitary and...
Human p53 protein bound to a short DNA fragment. ...
Turcot syndrome is the association between familial adenomatous polyposis and brain tumors. ...
A brain tumour is any intracranial mass created by an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells either normally found in the brain itself: neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells), lymphatic tissue, blood vessels), in the cranial nerves (myelin producing Schwann cells), in the brain envelopes (meninges), skull, pituitary and...
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is an inherited condition in which numerous polyps form mainly in the epithelium of the large intestine. ...
Diagram of the stomach, colon, and rectum Colorectal cancer includes cancerous growths in the colon, rectum and appendix. ...
Environment and diet
 The incidence of lung cancer is highly correlated with smoking. Source:NIH. The most consistent finding, over decades of research, is the strong association between tobacco use and cancers of many sites. Hundreds of epidemiological studies have confirmed this association. Further support comes from the fact that lung cancer death rates in the United States have mirrored smoking patterns, with increases in smoking followed by dramatic increases in lung cancer death rates and, more recently, decreases in smoking followed by decreases in lung cancer death rates in men. Up to half of all cancer cases can be attributed to smoking, diet, and environmental pollution. From the National Cancer Institute. ...
From the National Cancer Institute. ...
Species N. glauca N. longiflora N. rustica N. sylvestris N. tabacum Ref: ITIS 30562 as of August 26, 2005 Tobacco (, L.) refers to a genus of broad-leafed plants of the nightshade family, which is indigenous to North and South America, or to their dried and cured leaves. ...
The incidence of lung cancer is highly correlated with smoking. ...
Various smoking equipment including different pipes, and cigars. ...
Epidemiology In some Western countries, such as the USA[1] and the UK[2], cancer is overtaking cardiovascular disease as the leading cause of death. In many Third World countries cancer incidence (insofar as this can be measured) appears much lower, most likely because of the higher death rates due to infectious disease or injury. With the increased control over malaria and tuberculosis in some Third World countries, incidence of cancer is expected to rise; this is termed the iceberg phenomenon in epidemiological terminology. Cardiovascular disease refers to the class of diseases that involve the heart and/or blood vessels (arteries and veins). ...
For the Jamaican reggae band, see Third World (band). ...
Red blood cell infected with Malaria (Italian: bad air; formerly called ague or marsh fever in English) is an infectious disease which in humans causes about 350-500 million infections and approximately 30. ...
Tuberculosis (commonly shortened to TB) is an infection caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which most commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary TB) but can also affect the central nervous system (meningitis), lymphatic system, circulatory system (Miliary tuberculosis), genitourinary system, bones and joints. ...
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease in human populations (Rothman and Greenland), and the application of this study to control health problems (Last 2001). ...
Cancer epidemiology closely mirrors risk factor spread in various countries. Hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer) is rare in the West but is the main cancer in China and neighboring countries, most likely due to the endemic presence of hepatitis B and aflatoxin in that population. Similarly, with tobacco smoking becoming more common in various Third World countries, lung cancer incidence has increased in a parallel fashion. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC, also called hepatoma or liver cancer) is a primary malignancy (cancer) of the liver. ...
Originally known as serum hepatitis, hepatitis B has only been recognized as such since World War II, and has caused current epidemics in parts of Asia and Africa. ...
Chemical structure of Aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus; but most notably Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. ...
Various smoking equipment including different pipes, and cigars. ...
Prevention Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease the incidence of cancer. This can be accomplished by avoiding carcinogens or altering their metabolism, pursuing a lifestyle or diet that modifies cancer-causing factors and/or medical intervention (chemoprevention, treatment of premalignant lesions). In pathology, a carcinogen is any substance or agent that promotes cancer. ...
Santorio Santorio (1561-1636) in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medecina, first published 1614 Metabolism (from μεταβολισμος (metabolismos), the Greek word for change, or overthrow (Etymonline)), is the biochemical modification of chemical compounds in living organisms and cells. ...
Much of the promise for cancer prevention comes from observational epidemiologic studies that show associations between modifiable life style factors or environmental exposures and specific cancers. Evidence is now emerging from randomized controlled trials designed to test whether interventions suggested by the epidemiologic studies, as well as leads based on laboratory research, actually result in reduced cancer incidence and mortality.
Examples of modifiable cancer risk include alcohol consumption (associated with increased risk of oral, esophageal, breast, and other cancers), physical inactivity (associated with increased risk of colon, breast, and possibly other cancers), and being overweight (associated with colon, breast, endometrial, and possibly other cancers). Based on epidemiologic evidence, it is now thought that avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, being physically active, and maintaining recommended body weight may all contribute to reductions in risk of certain cancers; however, compared with tobacco exposure, the magnitude of effect is modest or small and the strength of evidence is often weaker. Other lifestyle and environmental factors known to affect cancer risk (either beneficially or detrimentally) include certain sexual and reproductive practices, the use of exogenous hormones, exposure to ionizing radiation and ultraviolet radiation, certain occupational and chemical exposures, and infectious agents. In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-kukhul الكØول, al meaning the and kukhul meaning spirit, the chemical) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ...
Obesity is a condition where the natural energy reserve, stored in the fatty tissue of humans and mammals is increased to the point where it may impair health. ...
Diet and cancer The consensus on diet and cancer is that obesity increases the risk of developing cancer. Particular dietary practices often explain differences in cancer incidence in different countries (e.g. gastric cancer is more common in Japan, while colon cancer is more common in the United States). Studies have shown that immigrants develop the risk of their new country, suggesting a link between diet and cancer rather than a genetic basis. In medicine, stomach cancer (also called gastric cancer) can develop in any part of the stomach and may spread throughout the stomach and to other organs. ...
Diagram of the stomach, colon, and rectum Colorectal cancer includes cancerous growths in the colon, rectum and appendix. ...
Despite frequent reports of particular substances (including foods) having a beneficial or detrimental effect on cancer risk, few of these have an established link to cancer. These reports are often based on studies in cultured cell media or animals. Public health recommendations cannot be made on the basis of these studies until they have been validated in an observational (or occasionally a prospective interventional) trial in humans.
The case of beta-carotene provides an example of the necessity of randomized clinical trials. Epidemiologists studying both diet and serum levels observed that high levels of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A, were associated with a protective effect, reducing the risk of cancer. This effect was particularly strong in lung cancer. This hypothesis led to a series of large randomized trials conducted in both Finland and the United States (CARET study) during the 1980s and 1990s. This study provided about 80,000 smokers or former smokers with daily supplements of beta-carotene or placebos. Contrary to expectation, these tests found no benefit of beta-carotene supplementation in reducing lung cancer incidence and mortality. In fact, the risk of lung cancer was slightly, but significantly, increased by beta-carotene, leading to an early termination of the study[3]. Carotene is a terpene, an orange photosynthetic pigment, important for photosynthesis. ...
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease in human populations (Rothman and Greenland), and the application of this study to control health problems (Last 2001). ...
Carotene is a terpene, an orange photosynthetic pigment, important for photosynthesis. ...
Retinol, the dietary form of vitamin A, is a fat-soluble, antioxidant vitamin important in vision and bone growth. ...
A placebo, from the Latin for I will please, is a medical treatment (operation, therapy, chemical solution, pill, etc. ...
Carotene is a terpene, an orange photosynthetic pigment, important for photosynthesis. ...
Other chemoprevention agents Daily use of tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, for up to 5 years, has been demonstrated to reduce the risk of developing breast cancer in high-risk women by about 50%. Cis-retinoic acid also has been shown to reduce risk of second primary tumors among patients with primary head and neck cancer. Finasteride, a 5-alpha reductase inhibitor, has been shown to lower the risk of prostate cancer. Other examples of drugs that show promise for chemoprevention include COX-2 inhibitors (which inhibit a cyclooxygenase enzyme involved in the synthesis of proinflammatory prostaglandins). Tamoxifen:chemical structure Tamoxifen is an oral selective estrogen receptor modulator which is used in breast cancer treatment, and is currently the worlds largest selling breast cancer treatment. ...
The estrogen receptor is a receptor for estradiol (the main endogenous estrogen); it is located intracellularly, in parallel with other steroid hormone receptors. ...
Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ...
Retinoic acid, or Retin-A or vitamin A acid, is a carotenoid organic compound which is a component of visual pigments. ...
Head and neck cancers are malignant growths located in the oral cavity (mouth), nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, thyroid, paranasal sinuses, salivary glands and lymph nodes of the upper neck. ...
Finasteride is an antiandrogen which acts by inhibing 5-alpha reductase, the enzyme the converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. ...
This article needs cleanup. ...
Cyclooxygenase (COX) is an enzyme (EC 1. ...
A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body. ...
Genetic testing Genetic testing for high-risk individuals, with enhanced surveillance, chemoprevention, or risk-reducing surgery for those who test positive, is already available for certain cancer-related genetic mutations. Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a persons ancestry. ...
Diagnosing cancer Most cancers are initially recognized either because signs or symptoms appear or through screening. Neither of these lead to a definitive diagnosis, which usually requires the opinion of a pathologist. Anatomical pathology is the branch of pathology that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross and microscopic examination of cells and tissues. ...
Signs and symptoms Roughly, cancer symptoms can be divided into three groups: - Local symptoms: unusual lumps or swelling (tumor), hemorrhage (bleeding), pain and/or ulceration. Compression of surrounding tissues may cause symptoms such as jaundice.
- Symptoms of metastasis (spreading): enlarged lymph nodes, cough and hemoptysis, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), bone pain, fracture of affected bones and neurological symptoms. Although advanced cancer may cause pain, it is often not the first symptom.
- Systemic symptoms: weight loss, poor appetite and cachexia (wasting), excessive sweating (night sweats), anemia and specific paraneoplastic phenomena, i.e. specific conditions that are due to an active cancer, such as thrombosis or hormonal changes.
Every single item in the above list can be caused by a variety of conditions (a list of which is referred to as the differential diagnosis). Cancer may be a common or uncommon cause of each item. Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means swelling, and is sometimes still used with that meaning. ...
Hemorrhage (alternate spelling is Haemorrhage) is the medical term referring to the presence of blood in the interstitial tissues. ...
Pain is an unpleasant sensation which may be associated with actual or potential tissue damage and which may have physical and emotional components. ...
Endoscopic images of a duodenal ulcer. ...
Jaundice, also known as icterus (adjective:Icteric), is yellowing of the skin, sclera (the white of the eyes) and mucous membranes caused by increased levels of bilirubin in the human body. ...
Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ...
Structure of the lymph node. ...
Hemoptysis is the expectoration of blood or of blood-stained sputum from the bronchi, larynx, trachea, or lungs (e. ...
Hepatomegaly is an enlargement of the liver (swelling). ...
The liver is one of the largest internal organs of the human body. ...
For fractures in bones, see Fracture (bone). ...
Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with the nervous system and its disorders. ...
Pain is an unpleasant sensation which may be associated with actual or potential tissue damage and which may have physical and emotional components. ...
In the context of physical health, weight loss is the process of losing body weight, typically by losing fat. ...
Anorexia (deriving from the Greek ÏŒÏεξη (orexe) = appetite) is the decreased sensation of appetite. ...
Sweating (also called perspiration or sometimes transpiration) is the loss of a watery fluid, consisting mainly of sodium chloride and urea in solution, that is secreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals. ...
Sleep hyperhidrosis, more commonly known as the night sweats, is the occurrence of excessive sweating (hyperhidrosis) during sleep. ...
This article discusses the medical condition. ...
A paraneoplastic phenomenon is a disease or symptom that is the consequence of the presence of cancer in the body, but is not due to the local presence of cancer cells. ...
Thrombosis is the formation of a clot or thrombus inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. ...
Differential diagnosis is the process by which a physician utilitizes the scientific method and the skills acquired in medical school, internship, and residency to take a history, examine the patient, and do the appropriate testing to determine the nature and extent of a disease process in a patient. ...
Biopsy A cancer may be suspected for a variety of reasons, but the definitive diagnosis of most malignancies must be confirmed by histological examination of the cancerous cells by a pathologist. Tissue can be obtained from a biopsy or surgery. Many biopsies (such as those of the skin, breast or liver) can be done in a doctor's office. Biopsies of other organs are performed under anesthesia and require surgery in an operating room. A thin section of lung tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin. ...
Anatomical pathology is the branch of pathology that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross and microscopic examination of cells and tissues. ...
A biopsy (in Greek: bios = life and opsy = look/appearance) is a medical test involving the removal of cells or tissues for examination. ...
A typical modern surgery operation Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning hand work) is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries by operative manual and instrumental treatment. ...
For the song (Anesthesia) Pulling Teeth by Metallica, go here. ...
A typical modern surgery operation Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning hand work) is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries by operative manual and instrumental treatment. ...
An operating theatre or operating room is a room within a hospital within which surgical operations are carried out. ...
The tissue diagnosis indicates the type of cell that is proliferating, its histological grade and other features of the tumor. Together, this information is useful to evaluate the prognosis of this patient and choose the best treatment. Cytogenetics and immunohistochemistry may provide information about future behavior of the cancer (prognosis) and best treatment. Diagnosis (from the Greek words dia = by and gnosis = knowledge) is the process of identifying a disease by its signs, symptoms and results of various diagnostic procedures. ...
A grade may refer to many different concepts, including: in various contexts: Each item in a (generally ordered and finite) collection of symbols or designators used as a particular grade system to distinguish and rank corresponding groups, where distinct members or instances of each group are regarded as sufficiently similar...
Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις, modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing, foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the doctors prediction of how a patients disease will progress, and whether there is chance of recovery. ...
Look up Therapy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Therapy (in Greek: θεÏαπεία) or treatment is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a diagnosis. ...
A metaphase cell positive for the bcr/abl rearrangement using FISH Cytogenetics is the study of the structure of chromosome material. ...
Immunohistochemistry is the process of detection of antigens in tissue using antibodies. ...
Screening Cancer screening is an attempt to detect unsuspected cancers in the population. Screening tests suitable for large numbers of healthy people must be relatively affordable, safe, noninvasive procedures with acceptably low rates of false positive results. If signs of cancer are detected, more definitive and invasive followup tests are performed to confirm the diagnosis. This page is a candidate to be copied to Wiktionary. ...
A false positive, also called false alarm, exists when a test reports, incorrectly, that it has found a signal where none exists in reality. ...
Screening for cancer can lead to earlier diagnosis. Early diagnosis may lead to extended life. A number of different screening tests have been developed. Breast cancer screening can be done by breast self-examination. Screening by regular mammograms detects tumors even earlier than self-examination, and many countries use it to systematically screen all middle-aged women. Colorectal cancer can be detected through fecal occult blood testing and colonoscopy, which reduces both colon cancer incidence and mortality, presumably through the detection and removal of premalignant polyps. Similarly, cervical cytology testing (using the Pap smear) leads to the identification and excision of precancerous lesions. Over time, such testing has been followed by a dramatic reduction of cervical cancer incidence and mortality. Testicular self-examination is recommended for men beginning at the age of 15 years to detect testicular cancer. Prostate cancer can be screened for by a digital rectal exam along with prostate specific antigen (PSA) blood testing. Breast self-examination (BSE) is an easy but unreliable method for finding possible breast cancer. ...
Mammography is the process of using low-dose X-rays (usually around 0. ...
Fecal occult blood is a term for blood present in the feces that is not visibly apparent. ...
Colonoscopy is the minimally invasive endoscopic examination of the large colon and the distal part of the small bowel with a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube passed through the anus. ...
The pap smear as we know it is an invention of Dr. Georgios Papanikolaou (1883-1962), an American of Greek birth, the father of cytopathology. ...
Cervical cancer is a malignancy of the cervix. ...
As testicular cancer is a significant killer of males, doctors recommend monthly self-examination. ...
Testicular cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the testicles, a part of the male reproductive system. ...
A rectal examination or rectal exam is an internal examination of the rectum by a physician. ...
Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a protein manufactured exclusively by the prostate gland; PSA is produced for the ejaculate where it liquifies the semen and allows sperm to swim freely. ...
Screening for cancer is controversial in cases when it is not yet known if the test actually saves lives. The controversy arises when it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of follow-up diagnostic tests and cancer treatments. For example: when screening for prostate cancer, the PSA test may detect small cancers that would never become life threatening, but once detected will lead to treatment. This situation, called overdiagnosis, puts men at risk for complications from unnecessary treatment such as surgery or radiation. Followup procedures used to diagnose prostate cancer (prostate biopsy) may cause side effects, including bleeding and infection. Prostate cancer treatment may cause incontinence (inability to control urine flow) and erectile dysfunction (erections inadequate for intercourse). Similarly, for breast cancer, there have recently been criticisms that breast screening programs in some countries cause more problems than they solve. This is because screening of women in the general population will result in a large number of women with false positive results which require extensive follow-up investigations to exclude cancer, leading to having a high number-to-treat (or number-to-screen) to prevent or catch a single case of breast cancer early. Prostate cancer is a disease in which cancer develops in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system. ...
Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a protein manufactured exclusively by the prostate gland; PSA is produced for the ejaculate where it liquifies the semen and allows sperm to swim freely. ...
Overdiagnosis is the diagnosis of disease that (without screening) would not have given symptoms during the lifetime of a patient. ...
Prostate biopsy is a procedure in which small samples are removed from a mans prostate gland to be tested for the presence of cancer. ...
The word incontinence has several distinct meanings: urinary incontinence is the inability to control urination fecal incontinence is the inability to control defecation the word incontinence can also be used to mean a lack of self-control governing morality. ...
Erectile dysfunction, also known as impotence, is a sexual dysfunction characterized by the inability to develop or maintain an erection of the penis for satisfactory sexual intercourse regardless of the capability of ejaculation. ...
Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ...
Cervical cancer screening via the Pap smear has the best cost-benefit profile of all the forms of cancer screening from a public health perspective as, being a cancer, it has clear risk factors (sexual contact), and the natural progression of cervical cancer is that it normally spreads slowly over a number of years therefore giving more time for the screening program to catch it early. Moreover, the test itself is easy to perform and relatively cheap. The pap smear as we know it is an invention of Dr. Georgios Papanikolaou (1883-1962), an American of Greek birth, the father of cytopathology. ...
For these reasons, it is important that the benefits and risks of diagnostic procedures and treatment be taken into account when considering whether to undertake cancer screening.
Use of medical imaging to search for cancer in people without clear symptoms is similarly marred with problems. There is a significant risk of detection of what has been recently called an incidentaloma - a benign lesion that may be interpreted as a malignancy and be subjected to potentially dangerous investigations. Medical imaging is the process by which physicians evaluate an area of the subjects body that is not normally visible. ...
In medicine, an incidentaloma is a tumor (-oma) found by coincidence (incidental) without clinical symptoms and suspicion. ...
Treatment of cancer Cancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy or other methods. The choice of therapy depends upon the location and grade of the tumor and the stage of the disease, as well as the general state of the patient (performance status). A number of experimental cancer treatments are also under development. A typical modern surgery operation Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning hand work) is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries by operative manual and instrumental treatment. ...
Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ...
Clinac 2100 C accelerator Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). ...
Immunotherapy is a form of medical treatment based upon the concept of modulating the immune system to achieve a therapeutic goal In the context of allergies, immunotherapy can be beneficial. ...
The stage of a cancer is a descriptor (usually numbers I to IV) of how much the cancer has spread. ...
In medicine (oncology and other fields), performance status is an attempt to quantify cancer patients general wellbeing. ...
Experimental cancer treatments are medical therapies intended or claimed to treat cancer (see also tumor) by improving on, supplementing or replacing conventional methods (surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and immunotherapy). ...
Complete removal of the cancer without damage to the rest of the body is the goal of treatment. Sometimes this can be accomplished by surgery, but the propensity of cancers to invade adjacent tissue or to spread to distant sites by microscopic metastasis often limits its effectiveness. The effectiveness of chemotherapy is often limited by toxicity to other tissues in the body. Radiation can also cause damage to normal tissue.
Because "cancer" refers to a class of diseases, it is unlikely that there will ever be a single "cure for cancer" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. In medicine, infectious disease or communicable disease is disease caused by a biological agent (e. ...
Surgery In theory, cancers can be cured if entirely removed by surgery, but this is not always possible. When the cancer has metastasized to other sites in the body prior to surgery, complete surgical excision is usually impossible. A typical modern surgery operation Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning hand work) is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries by operative manual and instrumental treatment. ...
Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ...
Examples of surgical procedures for cancer include mastectomy for breast cancer and prostatectomy for prostate cancer. The goal of the surgery can be either the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ. A single cancer cell is invisible to the naked eye but can regrow into a new tumor, a process called recurrence. For this reason, the pathologist will examine the surgical specimen to determine if a margin of healthy tissue is present, thus decreasing the chance that microscopic cancer cells are left in the patient. In medicine, mastectomy is the medical term for the surgical removal of one or both breasts, partially or completely. ...
A Prostatectomy is the surgical removal of all or part of the prostate gland. ...
In mathematics, a recurrence relation, also known as a difference equation, is an equation which defines a sequence recursively: each term of the sequence is defined as a function of the preceding terms. ...
Anatomical pathology is the branch of pathology that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross and microscopic examination of cells and tissues. ...
In addition to removal of the primary tumor, surgery is often necessary for staging, e.g. determining the extent of the disease and whether it has metastasized to regional lymph nodes. Staging is a major determinant of prognosis and of the need for adjuvant therapy. The word staging can mean more than one thing: Staging (rocketry) Staging (pathology) Staging (theatre) Staging (stagecoaches) Staging area (military) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...
Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ...
Structure of the lymph node. ...
Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις, modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing, foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the doctors prediction of how a patients disease will progress, and whether there is chance of recovery. ...
Occasionally, surgery is necessary to control symptoms, such as spinal cord compression or bowel obstruction. This is referred to as palliative treatment. Bowel obstruction is mechanical blockage of the intestines, preventing the normal transit of the products of digestion. ...
Palliative care is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of the symptoms of a disease or slows its progress rather than providing a cure. ...
Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs ("anticancer drugs") that can destroy cancer cells. It interferes with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific for cancer cells. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ...
A medication is a licenced drug taken to cure or reduce symptoms of an illness or medical condition. ...
Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and most viruses). ...
Figure 1: Chromosome. ...
Because some drugs work better together than alone, two or more drugs are often given at the same time. This is called "combination chemotherapy"; most chemotherapy regimens are given in a combination.
A novel technique involves taking samples of the patient's tissue before chemotherapy. These tissues samples are screened to ensure they do not contain cancerous cells. The samples are expanded using tissue engineering techniques, and are then re-implanted following high dose chemotherapy in order to recolonise the damaged and somewhat destroyed tissue. A variation upon this method uses allogenic samples (samples donated by a different donor) instead of the patient's own tissue[4]. Tissue engineering can perhaps be best defined as the use of a combination of cells, engineering materials, and suitable biochemical factors to improve or replace biological functions in an effort to effect the advancement of medicine. ...
Immunotherapy - Main article: Cancer immunotherapy
Immunotherapy is the use of immune mechanisms against tumors. These are used in various forms of cancer, such as breast cancer (trastuzumab/Herceptin®) but also in leukemia (gemtuzumab ozogamicin/Mylotarg®). The agents are monoclonal antibodies directed against proteins that are characteristic to the cells of the cancer in question, or cytokines that modulate the immune system's response. Cancer Immunotherapy is the use of the immune system to reject cancer. ...
The immune system is the system of specialised cells and organs that protect an organism from outside biological influences. ...
Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ...
This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. ...
Leukemia (leukaemia in Commonwealth English) is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal proliferation of white blood cells (leukocytes). ...
Gemtuzumab ozogamicin (marketed as Mylotarg) is a monoclonal antibody used to treat acute myelogenous leukemia. ...
Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are antibodies that are identical because they were produced by one type of immune cell, all clones of a single parent cell. ...
Cytokines are small protein molecules that are the core of communication between immune system cells, and even between these cells and cells belonging to other tissue types. ...
Radiation therapy Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy, X-ray therapy, or irradiation) is the use of ionizing radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation therapy can be administered externally via external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) or internally via brachytherapy. The effects of radiation therapy are localised and confined to the region being treated. Radiation therapy injures or destroys cells in the area being treated (the "target tissue") by damaging their genetic material, making it impossible for these cells to continue to grow and divide. In addition, they cut off the blood supply to the cancer cells causing them to die in a process called necrosis. Although radiation damages both cancer cells and normal cells, most normal cells can recover from the effects of radiation and function properly. The goal of radiation therapy is to damage as many cancer cells as possible, while limiting harm to nearby healthy tissue. Hence, it is given in many fractions, allowing healthy tissue to recover between fractions. Clinac 2100 C accelerator Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). ...
External beam radiotherapy is the most common form of radiotherapy where a patient lies on a couch and an external source of X-rays is pointed at a particular part of the body. ...
Sealed source radiotherapy or brachytherapy is the application of radiation from close range and is used for techniques where the radioactive source is placed inside the area requiring treatment. ...
Necrosis (in Greek ÎεκÏός = Dead) is the name given to unprogrammed death of cells/living tissue (compare with apoptosis - programmed cell death). ...
Radiation therapy may be used to treat almost every type of solid tumor, including cancers of the brain, breast, cervix, larynx, lung, pancreas, prostate, skin, stomach, uterus, or soft tissue sarcomas. Radiation is also used to treat leukemia and lymphoma. Radiation dose to each site depends on a number of factors, including the radiosensitivty of each cancer type and whether there are tissues and organs nearby that may be damaged by radiation. Thus, as with every form of treatment, radiation therapy is not without its side effects. These side effects include temporary (reversible) or permanent side effects (irreversible damage).
Hormonal suppression The growth of nearly all tissues, including cancers, can be accelerated or inhibited by providing or blocking certain hormones. This allows an additional method of treatment for many cancers. Common examples of hormone-sensitive tumors include certain types of breast, prostate, and thyroid cancers. Removing or blocking estrogen, testosterone, or TSH, respectively, is often an important additional treatment. Thyroid cancer is cancer of the thyroid gland. ...
Estrogens (also oestrogens) are a group of steroid compounds that function as the primary female sex hormone. ...
Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. ...
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as TSH or thyrotropin) is a hormone synthesised and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland. ...
Symptom control Although the control of the symptoms of cancer is not typically thought of as a treatment directed at the cancer, it is an important determinant of the quality of life of cancer patients, and plays an important role in the decision whether the patient is able to undergo other treatments. Although all practicing doctors have the therapeutic skills to control pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhage and other common problems in cancer patients, the multidisciplinary specialty of palliative care has arisen specifically in response to the symptom control needs of this group of patients. The well-being or quality of life of a population is an important concern in economics and political science. ...
Palliative care is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of the symptoms of a disease or slows its progress rather than providing a cure. ...
Pain medication, such as morphine and oxycodone, and antiemetics, drugs to suppress nausea and vomiting, are very commonly used in patients with cancer-related symptoms. For other uses of painkiller, see painkiller (disambiguation) An analgesic (colloquially known as painkiller) is any member of the diverse group of drugs used to relieve pain. ...
Morphine (INN), the principal active agent in opium, is a powerful opioid analgesic drug. ...
Oxycodone is a very powerful and potentially addictive opioid analgesic medication synthesized from thebaine. ...
An antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea. ...
Treatment trials Clinical trials, also called research studies, test new treatments in people with cancer. The goal of this research is to find better ways to treat cancer and help cancer patients. Clinical trials test many types of treatment such as new drugs, new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy, new combinations of treatments, or new methods such as gene therapy. In medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is a research study. ...
Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. ...
A clinical trial is one of the final stages of a long and careful cancer research process. The search for new treatments begins in the laboratory, where scientists first develop and test new ideas. If an approach seems promising, the next step may be testing a treatment in animals to see how it affects cancer in a living being and whether it has harmful effects. Of course, treatments that work well in the lab or in animals do not always work well in people. Studies are done with cancer patients to find out whether promising treatments are safe and effective.
Patients who take part may be helped personally by the treatment(s) they receive. They get up-to-date care from cancer experts, and they receive either a new treatment being tested or the best available standard treatment for their cancer. Of course, there is no guarantee that a new treatment being tested or a standard treatment will produce good results. New treatments also may have unknown risks, but if a new treatment proves effective or more effective than standard treatment, study patients who receive it may be among the first to benefit.
Complementary and alternative medicine Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments are the diverse group of medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be effective by the standards of conventional medicine. Some non-conventional treatment methods are used to "complement" conventional treatment, to provide comfort or lift the spirits of the patient, while others are offered as alternatives to be used instead of conventional treatments in hope of curing the cancer. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a diverse set of medical and health care systems, practices, and products encompassing both complementary medicine and alternative medicine. ...
Common complementary measures include prayer or psychological approaches such as "imaging" or meditation to aid in pain relief, or improve mood. Many people feel these approaches benefit them, but most have not been scientifically proven and therefore face skepticism. Other complementary approaches include traditional medicine like Traditional Chinese Medicine. Prayer is an effort to communicate with God, or to some deity or deities, or another form of spiritual entity, or otherwise, either to offer praise, to make a request, or simply to express ones thoughts and emotions. ...
According to Bogart (1991) and Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes (2000) the different techniques of meditation can be classified according to their focus. ...
TCM shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong. ...
A wide range of alternative treatments have been offered for cancer over the last century. The appeal of alternative cures arises from the daunting risks, costs, or potential side effects of many conventional treatments, or in the limited prospect for cure. Proponents of these therapies are unable or unwilling to demonstrate effectiveness by conventional criteria. Alternative treatments have included special diets or dietary supplements (e.g., the "grape diet" or megavitamin therapy), electrical devices (e.g., "zappers"), specially formulated compounds (e.g., laetrile, and homeopathic remedies), unconventional use of conventional drugs (e.g., insulin), purges or enemas, physical manipulations of the body, various herbs or herbal preparations such as essiac. Some of these treatments meet all the criteria for fraud. Collectively they are referred to by skeptics as cancer quackery. An extensive, explanatory catalog of these treatments is available at Quackwatch [5]. Almost all physicians recommend against using these modalities as sole treatment for potentially fatal conditions such as cancer. In the United States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 as a product taken by the mouth that contains a dietary ingredient that is intended as a supplement to the diet. ...
Megavitamin therapy uses large amounts of vitamins, often several times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) to treat many types of diseases and to extend life. ...
Amygdalin (from the Greek amugdale, almond), C20H27NO11, is a glucoside isolated from bitter almonds by H. E. Robiquet and A. F. Boutron-Charlard in 1830, and subsequently investigated by Liebig and Wöhler, and others. ...
Homeopathy (also spelled homœopathy or homoeopathy), from the Greek words homoios (similar) and pathos (suffering), is a controversial system of alternative medicine involving the use of remedies without chemically active ingredients. ...
The structure of insulin Red: carbon; green: oxygen; blue: nitrogen; pink: sulfur. ...
This rectal bulb syringe may be used to administer small enemas. ...
A herb (pronounced hurb in Commonwealth English and urb in American English) is a plant grown for culinary, medicinal, or in some cases even spiritual value. ...
Essiac or Essiac Tea is a blend of herbs used to make a tea that is believed by some and questioned by others to have cancer-treating properties. ...
Look up Quackery in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Quackery is the practice of promoting medicine which lacks any evidence of effectiveness. ...
Quackwatch is an Internet guide to quackery and health frauds operated by Stephen Barrett, M.D., a retired psychiatrist, with input from his board of advisors (linked to on his site below). ...
Cancer vaccines Considerable research effort is now devoted to the development of vaccines (to prevent infection by oncogenic infectious agents, as well as to mount an immune response against cancer-specific epitopes) and to potential venues for gene therapy for individuals with genetic mutations or polymorphisms that put them at high risk of cancer. No cancer vaccines are presently in use, and most of the research is still in its initial stages. A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to produce active immunity to a disease, in order to prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by any natural or wild strain of the organism. ...
An epitope is the part of a foreign organism (or its proteins) that is being recognised by the immune system and targeted by antibodies, cytotoxic T cells or both. ...
Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. ...
As of October 2005, researchers found that an experimental vaccine for HPV types 16 and 18 was 100% successful at preventing infection with these types of HPV and, thus, are able to prevent the majority of cervical cancer cases. [6] 2005 : January - February - March - April - May - June - July - August - September - October - November - December- → Deaths in October 28: Richard Smalley 26: Emil Kyulev 24: José Azcona del Hoyo 24: Rosa Parks 23: Stella Obasanjo 22: Liam Lawlor 22: Shirley Horn 20: Endon Mahmood 17: Ba Jin 10: Milton Obote 7: Charles...
HPV is an initialism that can mean : Human Powered Vehicle Human papillomavirus a type of STD High Production Volume Chemicals Health Purchasing Victoria Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction This page concerning a three-letter acronym or abbreviation is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share...
Coping with cancer Many local organizations offer a variety of practical and support services to people with cancer. Support can take the form of support groups, counseling, advice, financial assistance, transportation to and from treatment, or information about cancer. Neighborhood organizations, local health care providers, or area hospitals are a good place to start looking. Cancer support groups provide a setting in which cancer patients can talk about living with cancer with others who may be having similar experiences. ...
Psychotherapy is a set of techniques believed to cure or to help solve behavioral and other psychological problems in humans. ...
While some people are reluctant to seek counseling, studies show that having someone to talk to reduces stress and helps people both mentally and physically. Counseling can also provide emotional support to cancer patients and help them better understand their illness. Different types of counseling include individual, group, family, self-help (sometimes called peer counseling), bereavement, patient-to-patient, and sexuality.
Many governmental and charitable organizations have been established to help patients cope with cancer. These organizations often are involved in cancer prevention, cancer treatment, and cancer research. Examples include: American Cancer Society, Lance Armstrong Foundation, BC Cancer Agency, Macmillan Cancer Relief , the Terry Fox Foundation, Cancer Research UK, Canadian Cancer Society, International Agency for Research on Cancer and the National Cancer Institute (US). The American Cancer Society is a charitable organization dedicated to eliminating cancer. ...
The Lance Armstrong Foundation (LAF) is a United States charitable organization that provides support for people with cancer. ...
Macmillan Cancer Relief is one of the largest British charities and provides free care and support to sufferers of cancer. ...
Cancer Research UK is a cancer research and awareness-promotion group in the United Kingdom, formed in 2002 by the merger of the Cancer Research Campaign and the Imperial Cancer Research Fund. ...
The Canadian Cancer Society is a volunteer-based organization which seeks to eradicate cancer and to enhance the quality of life of those suffering from cancer. ...
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, or CIRC in its French acronym) is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organisation of the United Nations. ...
The National Cancer Institute (NCI) is the United States federal governments principal agency for cancer research and training, and the first institute of the present-day National Institutes of Health. ...
Social impact Once referred to as "the C-word," cancer has a reputation for being a deadly disease. While this certainly applies to certain particular types, the truths behind the historical connotations of cancer are increasingly being overturned by advances in medical care. Some types of cancer have a prognosis that is substantially better than nonmalignant diseases such as heart failure and stroke. A stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA) occurs when the blood supply to a part of the brain is suddenly interrupted by occlusion (an ischemic stroke- approximately 90% of strokes), by hemorrhage (a hemorrhagic stroke - less than 10% of strokes) or other causes. ...
Progressive and disseminated malignant disease has a substantial impact on a cancer patient's quality of life, and many cancer treatments (such as chemotherapy) may have severe side-effects. In the advanced stages of cancer, many patients need extensive care, affecting family members and friends. Palliative care solutions may include permanent or "respite" hospice nursing. Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ...
Palliative care is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of the symptoms of a disease or slows its progress rather than providing a cure. ...
Palliative care is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of the symptoms of a disease or slows its progress rather than providing a cure. ...
Cancer research Cancer research is the intense scientific effort to understand disease processes and discover possible therapies. While understanding of cancer has increased exponentially since the last decades of the 20th century, radically new therapies are only discovered and introduced gradually. Cancer research is the intense scientific effort to understand the development of cancer and identify potential therapies. ...
In mathematics, a quantity that grows exponentially (or geometrically) is one that grows at a rate proportional to its size. ...
Targeted therapy in the late 1990s was considered a major breakthrough. This constitutes the use of agents specific for the deregulated proteins of cancer cells. Small molecules (such as the tyrosine kinase inhibitors imatinib and gefitinib) and monoclonal antibodies have proven to be a major step in oncological treatment. Targeted cancer therapy is a type of chemotherapy which blocks the growth of cancer cells by interfering specific targeted molecules needed for carcinogenesis and tumor growth. ...
Imatinib is a drug used to treat certain types of cancer. ...
Gefitinib is a new drug used in the treatment of certain types of cancer. ...
Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are antibodies that are identical because they were produced by one type of immune cell, all clones of a single parent cell. ...
See also Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...
Wiktionary logo Wiktionary is a sister project to Wikipedia intended to be a free wiki dictionary (including thesaurus and lexicon) in every language. ...
Image File history File links Commons-logo. ...
The Wikimedia Commons (also called Commons or Wikicommons) is a repository of free content images, sound and other multimedia files. ...
Oncology is the medical subspecialty dealing with the study and treatment of cancer. ...
This is a list of terms related to oncology. ...
Terminal illness is a medical term popularized in the 20th century for an active and progressive disease which cannot be cured and is expected to lead to death or a disease for which curative treatment is not viewed as appropriate. ...
References - ^ a b c d Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E, Samuels A, Tiwari RC, Ghafoor A, Feuer EJ, Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2005. CA Cancer J Clin 2005;55:10-30. Fulltext. PMID 15661684.
- ^ Bilal A, Treating Cancer with Stem Cells, Medical Engineer, 25 July 2005 Fulltext
- ^ A Special Message to Cancer Patients Seeking "Alternative" Treatments. URL accessed on 2005-12-16.
- ^ Cancer: Number one killer (9 November, 2000). BBC News online. Retrieved 2005-01-29.
- ^ Questions and Answers About Beta Carotene Chemoprevention Trials
- ^ Entrez PubMed. URL accessed on 2005-12-16.
July 25 is the 206th day (207th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 159 days remaining. ...
2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...
2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...
December 16 is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...
2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...
December 16 is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...
External links
Professional and research
Support and advocacy - American Cancer Society Patient advocate group
- American Association for Cancer Research Largest scientific organization in the world
- Cancer from MedlinePlus - provides links to news, general sites, diagnosis, treatment and alternative therapies, clinical trials, research, related issues, organizations, other MedlinePlus Cancers Topics and Living with Cancer, and more. Also, links to pre-formulated searches of the MEDLINE/PubMed database for recent research articles.
- Cancer Research UK - Cancer Resources - In-depth, up-to-date information for people with a professional or general interest in cancer and health.
- Cancer Research UK - Cancer Help - Free information service about cancer and cancer care for people with cancer and their families.
- Lance Armstrong Foundation - Helps people to find the right treatment and also helps them through the whole process of chemotherapy, surgery and getting back into life.
- Childhood Cancer Booklist and Resources (PDF) Lists books for children and adults, web sites, support groups and resources on childhood cancer. From Seattle Children's Hospital.
|
Feeds |
Contact