Late medieval bronze culverins and demi-cannon.

Cannon in the Middle Ages were large tubular firearms designed to fire a heavy projectile over a long distance. They were used in Europe and China, and were the archetypical form of artillery. The first cannon in Europe probably appeared in Moorish and Christian Spain. English cannon were first used during the Hundred Years War, when primitive cannon were used at the Battle of Crécy. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (960 × 1280 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (960 × 1280 pixel, file size: 2. ... A culverin is a cannon that fires an 18-pound solid round shot. ... This article needs copyediting (checking for proper English spelling, grammar, usage, etc. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... A projectile is any object sent through space by the application of a force. ... Artillery with Gabion fortification Cannons on display at Fort Point Continental Artillery crew from the American Revolution Firing of an 18-pound gun, Louis-Philippe Crepin, (1772 – 1851) A forge-welded Iron Cannon in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. ... Remains of a battery of English cannon from Youghal. ... This article is in need of attention. ... Combatants Kingdom of England, Allied knights from Germany and Denmark France, Genoese Mercenaries, the Kingdoms of Navarre, Bohemia and the Balearic Islands Commanders Edward III of England Edward, the Black Prince Philip VI of France Strength about 12,000 30,000 to 40,000 Casualties 150-1,000 killed and...

The Old French word "cannon" was derived from Old Italian cannone, ultimately from Latin canna—a tube.^[1] The Latinised word canon was used for a gun since 1326 in Italy, and 1418 in England. Bombardum, or "bombard", was earliest used for "cannon", but from 1430 it came to refer only to the largest weapons.^[2] Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories corresponding roughly to the northern half of modern France and parts of Belgium and Switzerland from around 1000 to 1300 A.D. It was known at the time as the langue doïl to distinguish it from the langue... Italian ( , or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people,[1] primarily in Italy and Switzerland. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ...

[edit] Early cannon in China and East Asia

"Fire lances", gunpowder-propelled arrows, were used in China from at least 1132. The first documented record of artillery with gunpowder propellent used on the battlefield is on January 28, 1132 when General Han Shizhong of the Song Dynasty used escalade and Huochong to capture a city in Fujian. In 1221, cast iron bombs thrown by hand, sling, and catapult are mentioned. Somewhere around 1249, the Chinese of the Song Dynasty began to load early gunpowder in the middle of thick bamboo as a projection firearm, firing clay pellets like a shotgun. Smokeless powder Gunpowder, whether black powder or smokeless powder, is a substance that burns very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a propellant in firearms. ... Events Diarmaid Mac Murrough has the abbey of Kildare in Ireland burned and the abbess raped. ... January 28 is the 28th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events Diarmaid Mac Murrough has the abbey of Kildare in Ireland burned and the abbess raped. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Song Dynasty (Chinese: ; pinyin: ) was a ruling dynasty in China from 960-1279. ... For the SUV vehicle, see Cadillac Escalade. ... Huochong (Traditional Chinese: 火铳) is a tube-like, projection firearm. ...   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Fu-chien; Postal map spelling: Fukien, Foukien; local transliteration Hokkien from Min Nan Hok-kiàn) is one of the provinces on the southeast coast of the Peoples Republic of China. ... // Events May 13 - End of the reign of Emperor Juntoku, emperor of Japan Emperor ChÅ«kyō briefly reigns over Japan Former Emperor Go-Toba leads an unsuccessful rebellion against the Kamakura Shogunate Emperor Go-Horikawa ascends to the throne of Japan January - Mongol Army under Jochi captures the city of... Events University, the first College at Oxford founded Births Emperor Kameyama of Japan Pope John XXII Frederick I, Margrave of Baden Deaths July 6 - Alexander II of Scotland (b. ... The Song Dynasty (Chinese: ; pinyin: ) was a ruling dynasty in China from 960-1279. ...

Around the time of the wars between the Mongols and the Song Dynasty (1268-1279), mortars with bronze tubes or bronze first appeared.^[3] (However, the earliest certain example is dated 1332). Additionally, the Chinese and Mongols took up the use of "true" gunpowder instead of the slower-burning older mixture - which made this early cannon, known as the Huochong, more reliable and powerful. During wartime, the Chinese used the early gunpowder weapons in defence against the Mongols, mounting more than 3,000 bronze and iron casted cannons on the Great Wall of China. The weapon was later taken up by the Mongol conquerors, and also the Koreans. Many of the earliest weapons seem to primarily have functioned as psychological weapons, a trait gunpowder arms would keep for a long time. The name Mongols (Mongolian: Mongol) specifies one or several ethnic groups. ... The Song Dynasty (Chinese: ; pinyin: ) was a ruling dynasty in China from 960-1279. ... Events November 7 - Lucerne joins the Swiss Confederation with Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. ... Huochong (Traditional Chinese: 火铳) is a tube-like, projection firearm. ... The name Mongols (Mongolian: Mongol) specifies one or several ethnic groups. ... A section of the Great Wall near Beijing during winter The course of the Great Wall is shown in this map dated from 1805 The Great Wall (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: , literally long city wall) is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in China, built between 5th century...

[edit] Spread to Europe

Roger Bacon described the first gunpowder in Europe.

The invention of gunpowder and cannon spread into India prior to the Mongol intrusion in China, and thence to the Islamic world. The Islamic Karshuni manuscript has editions of gunpowder recipes from the early 12th century, and there is mention of rockets or fire arrows being used in the mid-13th century, primarily as psychological weapons, and primarily defensively. The first mention of the composition of gunpowder in express terms in Europe appeared in 1216, in Roger Bacon's "De nullitate magiæ" at Oxford.^[4] Later in 1248, his "Opus Maior" describes a recipe and recognized military use: Download high resolution version (700x694, 48 KB)Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. ... Download high resolution version (700x694, 48 KB)Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. ... Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Roger Bacon (c. ... This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ... Smokeless powder Gunpowder, whether black powder or smokeless powder, is a substance that burns very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a propellant in firearms. ... Nations with a Muslim majority appear in green, while nations that are approximately 50% Muslim appear yellow. ... (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... // Prince Louis of France, the future King Louis VIII, invades England in the First Barons War Henry III becomes King of England. ... Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Roger Bacon (c. ... For broader historical context, see 1240s and 13th century. ...

"We can, with saltpeter and other substances, compose artificially a fire that can be launched over long distances... By only using a very small quantity of this material much light can be created accompanied by a horrible fracas. It is possible with it to destroy a town or an army ... In order to produce this artificial lightning and thunder it is necessary to take saltpeter, sulfur, and Luru Vopo Vir Can Utriet".

Bacon described firecrackers, "used in certain parts of the world". Bacon's mixture resembles the assumed composition of Chinese slow-burning powder as used in fire arrows and rockets, but will probably not function well as cannon gunpowder - the saltpeter content is too low. In 1260, the Norwegian Konungs skuggsjá mentioned, in its military chapter, the use of "coal and sulphur" as the best weapon for ship-to-ship combat. A page from Konungs skuggsjá. Konungs skuggsjá (Old Norse for Kings mirror; Latin: Speculum regale, modern Norwegian: Kongespeilet) is a Norwegian educational scripture from around 1250, dealing with politics and moral. ... Naval warfare is combat in and on seas and oceans. ...

Hand guns were probably in use at this time, with Italian scopettieri ("gun bearers") mentioned in conjunction with crossbowmen in 1281. For broader historical context, see 1280s and 13th century. ...

[edit] Moorish and Christian Spain

Defensive use of Moorish cannon occured during the siege of Seville in 1248, and the siege of Niebla in 1262, where it is reported that Almohad defenders used machines which projected stones and fire accompanied by thundering noises. Some Spanish histories consider that this was the first time that gunpowder had been used in warfare in Spain.^[5] In reference to the siege to Alicante in 1331, the Spanish historian Zurita recorded a "new machine that caused great terror. It threw iron balls with fire."^[6][5] The Spanish historian Juan de Mariana recalled further use of cannon during the capture of Algeciras in 1342: NO8DO (I was not abandoned) Location Coordinates : ( ) Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Sevilla (Spanish) Spanish name Sevilla Founded 8th-9th century BC Postal code 41001-41080 Website http://www. ... For broader historical context, see 1240s and 13th century. ... Map of Niebla, Huelva Niebla is a town and municipality located in the province of Huelva, Spain. ... Events Strasbourg becomes a Free City of the Holy Roman Empire First Visconti become the lord of Iceland swear fealty to the king of Norway, bringing an end to the Icelandic Commonwealth Births Ladislaus IV of Hungary Deaths Monarchs/Presidents Aragon - James I King of Aragon and count of Barcelona... The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i. ... Location of Alicante in Spain Alicante (Castillian Spanish) or Alacant (Valencian) is the capital of the province of Alicante and of the comarca of the Alacantí, in the southern part of the Valencian community, Spain, a historic Mediterranean port. ... Events September 8 - Stefan Dusan declares himself king of Serbia Start of the reign of Emperor Kogon of Japan, first of the Northern Ashikaga Pretenders Births Coluccio Salutati, Florentine political leader (died 1406) Deaths January 14 - Odoric, Italian explorer October 27 - Abulfeda, Arab historian and geographer (born 1273) Categories: 1331... Zurita y Castro, Jeronimo (1512-1580), Spanish historian, was born at Zaragoza, and studied at Alcalá de Henares under the celebrated Hellenist, Hernan Nufiez. ... Juan de Mariana Juan de Mariana, (1536, Talavera - February 17th 1624, Madrid), was a Spanish historian. ... Algeciras is a port city in the south of Spain, near the British colony/Overseas Territory of Gibraltar, slightly to the north from Tarifa, which is the southernmost town of the peninsular Spain and Europe (, ). Both cities are situated on the Strait of Gibraltar; Algeciras also faces the Mediterranean. ... Events May - Pope Clement VI elected John III Comnenus becomes emperor of Trebizond Louis becomes king of Sicily and duke of Athens Constantine IV becomes king of Armenia Patriarch of Antioch transferred to Damascus under Ignatius II Kitzbühel becomes part of Tyrol Louis I becomes king of Hungary Births...

"The besieged did great harm among the Christians with iron bullets they shot. This is the first time we find any mention of gunpowder and ball in our histories."^[7]

Hand cannon or hand cannon-like devices were reported to be employed against the Mongols in 1260 and in 1304, an unattributed manuscript also depicted fire arrows and long-handled handguns. By 1340, light cannon are widespread enough in the Islamic world to end up in military inventories. The Spanish kings at the initial stages enlisted the help of Moorish experts: The magnificent Cathedral of Chartres was dedicated in 1260. ... Events 20 July - Fall of Stirling Castle: Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold in the Wars of Scottish Independence. ... Events Europe has about 74 million inhabitants. ... Moorish Ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I of England The Moors were the medieval Muslim inhabitants of al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula including present day Gibraltar, Spain and Portugal) as well as the Maghreb and western Africa, whose culture is often called Moorish. ...

"The first artillery-masters on the Peninsula probably were Moors in Christian service. The king of Navarre had a Moor in his service in 1367 as maestro de las guarniciones de artilleria. The Morisques of Tudela at that time had fame for their capacity in reparaciones de artilleria."^[8]

Capital Pamplona (Basque: Iruña) Official language(s) Spanish; Basque co-official in the north of community. ...

[edit] England and France

A reconstruction of the vase cannon that fired arrows.

Main article: English cannon

Juan de Mariana also relates that the English Earl of Derby and Earl of Salisbury had both participated in the siege of Algeciras, and they could had conceivably transferred the knowledge about the effectiveness of cannon to England.^[9] Cannon certainly saw its first real use on the European battlefield during the Hundred Years War, being only used in small numbers by a few states during the 1340s. "Ribaldis" were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy between 1345 and 1346.^[10] These were believed to have shot large arrows and simplistic grapeshot, but they were so important they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe.^[10] According to the contemporary Jean Froissart, the English cannon made "two or three discharges on the Genoese", which is taken to mean individual shots by two or three guns because of the time taken to reload such primitive artillery.^[10] The Florentine Giovanni Villani agreed that the were destructive on the field, though he also indicated that the guns continued to fire upon French cavalry later in the battle: Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 536 pixel Image in higher resolution (1792 × 1200 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 536 pixel Image in higher resolution (1792 × 1200 pixel, file size: 1. ... Remains of a battery of English cannon from Youghal. ... For other uses, see Derby (disambiguation). ... Salisbury (IPA: , or — moving from RP to local dialect) is a cathedral city in Wiltshire, England. ... Combatants France Castile Scotland Genoa Majorca Bohemia Crown of Aragon Brittany England Burgundy Brittany Portugal Navarre Flanders Hainault Aquitaine Luxembourg Holy Roman Empire The Hundred Years War was a conflict between France and England, lasting 116 years from 1337 to 1453. ... Centuries: 13th century - 14th century - 15th century Decades: 1290s 1300s 1310s 1320s 1330s - 1340s - 1350s 1360s 1370s 1380s 1390s Years: 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 Events and Trends The Black Death spreads across Europe The Battle of Sluys is fought between the naval fleets of... Combatants Kingdom of England, Allied knights from Germany and Denmark France, Genoese Mercenaries, the Kingdoms of Navarre, Bohemia and the Balearic Islands Commanders Edward III of England Edward, the Black Prince Philip VI of France Strength about 12,000 30,000 to 40,000 Casualties 150-1,000 killed and... Events Miracle of the Host Births October 31 - King Fernando I of Portugal (died 1383) Agnès of Valois, daughter of John II of France (died 1349) Eleanor Maltravers, English noblewoman (died 1405) Deaths April 14 - Richard Aungerville, English writer and bishop (born 1287) September 16 - John IV, Duke of... // Events Serbian Empire was proclaimed in Skopje by Dusan Silni, occupying much of the South-Eastern Europe Foundation of the University of Valladolid Foundation of Pembroke College, University of Cambridge August 26 Battle of Crecy after which Edward the Black Prince honored the bravery of John I, Count of Luxemburg... Jean Froissart (~1337 - ~1405) was one of the most important of the chroniclers of medieval France. ... Alternate uses, see Genoa (disambiguation). ... Giovanni Villani (ca 1275-1348), the Florentine writer of the famous chronicles (the Cronica) is the greatest Italian chronicler of his own times and the cornerstone of the early medieval history of Florence. ...

"The English guns cast iron balls by means of fire… They made a noise like thunder and caused much loss in men and horses… The Genoese were continually hit by the archers and the gunners… [by the end of the battle] the whole plain was covered by men struck down by arrows and cannon balls."^[10]

Similar cannon appeared also at the Siege of Calais in the same year, although it would not be until the 1380s that the "ribaudekin" clearly became mounted on wheels.^[10] The culverin was developed by the French in the 15th century, to bombard targets from a distance. It was of relatively long barrel and light construction, firing solid round shot projectiles at long ranges along a flat trajectory. Overall, the culverin was a significant advance over the ballista, which was the "light artillery" unit of the previous eras. Since it fired a ball of iron and relied on gunpowder for propulsion, the heavier ball meant a more stable flight and the gunpowder propulsion meant a faster and farther-ranged weapon. Combatants England France Commanders Edward III of England Jean de Fosseux Strength 34,000 men: 5,300 knights, 6,600 infantry, 20,000 archers, 2,000 Flemish soldiers 7,000 to 8,000 citizens The Siege of Calais in northern France began in 1346, towards the beginning of what would... A culverin is a cannon that fires an 18-pound solid round shot. ... Different types of cannon balls recovered from the Vasa, sunk in 1628 Round shot is a type of projectile fired from guns or cannons. ... The ballista (Latin, from Greek ballistēs, from ballein to throw, plural ballistae) was a powerful ancient crossbow, although employing a several loops of twisted skeins to power it using torsion rather than a prod. ...

[edit] Byzantine and Ottoman Empires

During the 14th century, the Byzantine Empire began to accumulate its own cannon to face the Ottoman threat, starting with medium-sized cannon 3 feet long and of 10" calibre.^[11] Only a few large bombards were under the Empire's control. The first definite use of artillery in the region was against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1396, as the attackers did not yet have any gunpowder of their own. These loud Byzantine weapons, possibly operated by the Genoese or "Franks" of Galata, forced the Turks to withdraw.^[11] This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... Look up Ottoman, ottoman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Map of Constantinople. ... Events September 25 - Bayazid I defeats Sigismund of Hungary and John of Nevers at the Battle of Nicopolis. ... For other uses, see Franks (disambiguation). ... Galata or Galatae is a district in Istanbul, the largest city of Turkey. ...

The Turks acquired their own cannon by the siege of 1422, using "falcons", which were short but wide cannon. The two sides were evenly matched technologically, and the Turks had to build barricades "in order to receive… the stones of the bombards."^[11] Ultimately, the lifting of the siege was not due to strength of arms, but to an apparition of the Theotokos upon the city walls.^[11] However, the Empire at this time was facing economic problems, and Pius II promoted the affordable donation of cannon by European monarchs as a means of aid. Any new cannons after the 1422 siege were gifts from European states, and aside from these no other advances were made to the Byzantine arsenal.^[11] Events January 10 - Battle of Nemecky Brod during the Hussite Wars. ... A falconet was a medieval cannon of fairly light construction which fired 1-pound solid round shot projectiles. ...

The Dardanelles Gun, used by the Turks at Constantinople.

When Sultan Mehmet II laid siege to Constantinople in April 1453, he used 68 Hungarian-made cannons, the largest of which was 26 feet long and weighed 20 tons. This fired a 1,200 pound stone cannonball, and required an operating crew of 200 men.^[12] Two such bombards had initially been offered to the Byzantines by the Hungarian artillery expert Urban, which were the pinnacle of gunpowder technology at the time; he boasted that they could reduce "even the walls of Babylon".^[11] However, the fact that the Empire could not afford it illustrates the financial costs of artillery at the time. These cannon also needed 70 oxen and 10,000 men just to transport them.^[11] They were extremely loud, adding to their psychological impact, and Mehmet believed that those who unexpectedly heard it would be struck dumb.^[11] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 442 pixel Image in higher resolution (858 × 474 pixel, file size: 800 KB, MIME type: image/png) Dardanelles Gun. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 442 pixel Image in higher resolution (858 × 474 pixel, file size: 800 KB, MIME type: image/png) Dardanelles Gun. ... Map of the Dardanelles The Dardanelles (Turkish: Çanakkale Boğazı, Greek: Δαρδανέλλια, Dardanellia), formerly known as the Hellespont (Greek: Eλλήσποντος, Hellespontos), is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. ... April 2 - Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople (İstanbul). ...

The 55 day bombardment of Constantinople left massive destruction, as recounted by the Greek chronicler Kritovoulos:

"And the stone, borne with enormous force and velocity, hit the wall, which it immediately shook and knocked down and was itself broken into many fragments and scattered, hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby."^[11]

Byzantine counter artillery allowed them to repel any visible Turkish weapons, and the defenders repulsed any attempts to storm any broken points in the walls and hastily repaired any damage. However, the walls could not be adapted for artillery, and towers were not good gun emplacements. There was even worry that the largest Byzantine cannon could cause more damage to their own walls than the Turkish cannon.^[11] Gunpowder had also made the formerly devastating Greek fire obsolete, and with the final fall of what had once been the strongest walls in Europe on May 29, "it was the end of an era in more ways than one".^[11] Greek fire was a burning-liquid weapon used by the Byzantine Greeks, typically in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. ... May 29 is the 149th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (150th in leap years). ... Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (1300–1500 A.D.). The Late Middle Ages were preceded by the High Middle Ages, and followed by the Early Modern era (Renaissance). ...

[edit] Effects of cannon in the Late Middle Ages

The rounded walls of the 14th century Sarzana Castle showed adaption to gunpowder.

Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the development of cannon made revolutionary changes to siege warfare throughout Europe, with many castles becoming susceptible to artillery fire. The primary aims in castle wall construction were height and thickness, but it became almost impossible to follow this ideal against ever more powerful cannon. Inevitably, those fortifications previously deemed impregnable, eventually proved inadequate in the face of gunpowder. The general adoption of cannon led to the loss of importance of majestic towers and merlons. Walls of new fortresses were thicker and angulated, while towers became lower and stouter. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1792x1184, 236 KB) Castle (Fortezza Firmafede) of Sarzana, Italy author: Lapo Luchini date: 2002-08-07 File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Castle Sarzana Metadata This file... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1792x1184, 236 KB) Castle (Fortezza Firmafede) of Sarzana, Italy author: Lapo Luchini date: 2002-08-07 File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Castle Sarzana Metadata This file... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... Sarzana is a town and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy, in, the Province of Genoa, 9 miles east of Spezia, on the railway to Pisa, at the point where the railway to Parma diverges to the north, 59 ft. ... Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (1300–1500 A.D.). The Late Middle Ages were preceded by the High Middle Ages, and followed by the Early Modern era (Renaissance). ... Pierrefonds Castle, France Castle has a history of scholarly debate surrounding its exact meaning. ... The Eiffel Tower Fire-observation watchtower in Kostroma, Russia. ... A merlon, in architecture, forms the solid part of an embattled parapet between the embrasures, sometimes pierced by loopholes. ...

In England, significant changes were evident from the 16th century, when Henry VIII began building Device Forts between 1539 and 1540 as artillery fortresses to counter the threat of invasion from France and Spain. They were built by the state at strategic points for the first powerful cannon batteries, such as Deal Castle, which was perfectly symmetrical, with a low, circular keep at its centre. Over 200 cannon and gun ports were set within the walls, and the fort was essentially a firing platform, with a shape that allowed many lines of fire; its low curved bastions were designed to deflect cannon balls.^[13] Cannon were now an inexorable part of English warfare. (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Silver groat of Henry VIII, minted c. ... The Device Forts are a series of artillery fortifications built in England by Henry VIII. After his divorce of Catherine of Aragon left England politically isolated, a treaty between France and Spain in 1538 aroused fears of invasion. ... Events May 30 - In Florida, Hernando de Soto lands at Tampa Bay with 600 soldiers with the goal to find gold. ... Year 1540 was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... Remains of a battery of English cannon from Youghal, County Cork. ... Deal Castle was built by Henry VIII, the most impressive of the Device Forts. ... The keep of Scarborough Castle Rochester Castle featuring a massive turreted keep Early 13th century keep (Rouen, France) The 14th century residential keep at Largoët A keep is a strong central tower which normally forms the heart of a castle. ...

To guard against artillery and gunfire, increasing use was made of earthen, brick and stone breastworks and redoubts, such as the geometric fortresses of the 17th century French Marquis de Vauban. These soon replaced castles in Europe, and eventually castles in the Americas were superseded by bastions and forts.^[14] A Breastwork is a fortification. ... A redoubt is a fort or fort system usually consisting of an enclosed defensive emplacement outside a larger fort. ... Sébastien Le Prestre, Seigneur de Vauban and later Marquis de Vauban (May 15, 1633 - March 30, 1707), commonly referred to as Vauban, was a Marshal of France and the foremost military engineer of his age, famed for his skill in both designing fortifications and in breaking through them. ...

[edit] See also

• Cannon

A small cannon on a carriage, Bucharest. ...

[edit] Footnotes

1. ^ American Heritage Dictionary
2. ^ Cannons and Gunpowder
3. ^ Jacques, A History of Chinese Civilisation
4. ^ (1771) "Gunpowder", Encyclopedia Britannica. “frier Bacon, our countryman, mentions the compoſition in expreſs terms, in his treatiſe De nullitate magiæ, publiſhed at Oxford, in the year 1216.” ; Note the Long s
5. ^ ^{a b} Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises
6. ^ Partington, J. R., A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, reprint by Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 191 (Latin text of Zurita)
7. ^ Mariana,.Juan de, Historia general de Espana, 2 volumes, Madrid, 1608, ii, 27; English tr. by Capt. John Stephens, The General History of Spain, 2 parts., London, 1699. Part one, p.2 64.
8. ^ Ada Bruhn de Hoffmeyer, Arms and Amour in Spain, p. 217.
9. ^ Watson, R., Chemical Essays, vol. I, London,1787, 1999. p.331
10. ^ ^{a b c d e} Nicolle, Crécy 1346: Triumph of the longbow
11. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-759-X.
12. ^ Military and War Weapons: the Cannon
13. ^ Wilkinson, Castles (Pocket Guides).
14. ^ Chartrand, Spanish Main 1492-1800

An italicized long s used in the word Congress in the United States Bill of Rights. ... One of the Men-at-Arms Series. ...

[edit] References

• Encyclopedia Britannica (1771). 
• Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History of Chinese Civilisation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49781-7. 
• David Nicolle, Crécy 1346: Triumph of the longbow, Osprey Publishing Paperback; June 25 2000; ISBN 9781855329669
• René Chartrand, Spanish Main 1492-1800; Osprey Publishing
• Philip Wilkinson, Castles (Pocket Guides). Publisher: DK CHILDREN; Pocket edition (September 29, 1997). ISBN 0789420473. ISBN 978-0789420473