NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Capsaicin

Capsaicin /ˌkæpˈseˌɪ.sɪn/ (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) is the active component of chilli peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus Capsicum. It is an irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burning in any tissue with which it comes into contact. Capsaicin and several related compounds are called capsaicinoids and are produced as a secondary metabolite by chilli peppers, probably as deterrents against herbivores. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, crystalline to waxy compound. The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... R-phrases are defined in Annex III of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Nature of special risks attributed to dangerous substances and preparations. ... S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. ... The plimsoll symbol as used in shipping In chemistry, the standard state of a material is its state at 1 bar (100 kilopascals exactly). ... The chile pepper (also chili or chilli; from Spanish chile) is the fruit of the plant Capsicum from the nightshade family (Solanaceae). ... u fuck in ua ... For other uses, see Genus (disambiguation). ... Species C. annuum (incl. ... The tone or style of this article or section may not be appropriate for Wikipedia. ... Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass â€ Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass â€ Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria Mammals (class Mammalia) are warm-blooded, vertebrate animals characterized by the presence of sweat glands, including those that produce milk, and by the presence of: hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex... This article is about modern humans. ... Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into natural product. ... A deer and two fawns feeding on some foliage A herbivore is often defined as any organism that eats only plants[1]. By that definition, many fungi, some bacteria, many animals, about 1% of flowering plants and some protists can be considered herbivores. ... In chemistry, hydrophobic or lipophilic species, or hydrophobes, tend to be electrically neutral and nonpolar, and thus prefer other neutral and nonpolar solvents or molecular environments. ...

History

The molecule was first isolated in 1816 in crystalline form by P. A. Buchtholz and again 30 years later by L. T. Tresh, who gave it the name capsaicin. In 1878, the Hungarian doctor Endre Hogyes (calling it capsicol) isolated it and proved that it not only caused the burning feeling when in contact with mucous membranes but also increased secretion of gastric juice. Capsaicin was first synthesized in 1930 by E. Spath and F. S. Darling. In 1964, similar substances were isolated from chilli peppers by the Japanese chemists S. Kosuge and Y. Inagaki, who named them capsaicinoids. The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular: mucosa) are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, and are involved in absorption and secretion. ... Gastric juice is a strong acidic liquid, pH 1 to 3, which is close to being colourless. ... The chile pepper (also chili or chilli; from Spanish chile) is the fruit of the plant Capsicum from the nightshade family (Solanaceae). ...

Capsaicinoids

Capsaicin is the main capsaicinoid in chilli peppers, followed by dihydrocapsaicin. These two compounds are also about twice as potent to the taste and nerves as the minor capsaicinoids nordihydrocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and homocapsaicin. Dilute solutions of pure capsaicinoids produced different types of pungency; however, these differences were not noted using more concentrated solutions. Chemical structure of dihydrocapsaicin Dihydrocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (Capsicum). ... Nordihydrocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (Capsicum). ... Chemical structure of homodihydrocapsaicin Homodihydrocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (Capsicum). ... Chemical structure of homocapsaicin Homocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (Capsicum). ...

Capsaicin is believed to be synthesized in the interlocular septa of chilli peppers by addition of a branched-chain fatty acid to vanillylamine. Biosynthesis depends on the gene AT3, which resides at the pun1 locus, and which encodes a putative acyltransferase.^[1] In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or unsaturated. ... Short and long arms Chromosome. ... Acetyl Acyltransferase is a type of transferase enzyme which acts upon acyl groups. ...

Besides six natural capsaicinoids also one synthetic member capsaicinoid exists. It is vanillylamide of n-nonanoic acid (VNA) and it is used as a reference substance for determining capsaicinoids relative pungency. Nonivamide Nonivamide, also known as pelargonic acid vanillylamide, PAVA, nonylic vanillylamide, N-[4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzyl]nonanamide, N-vanillylnonamide, nonylic acid vanillyl amide, vanillyl pelargonic amide, pelargonyl vanillyl amide, and pseudocapsaicin, an organic compound, is a capsaicinoid, an amide of pelargonic acid and vanillylamine. ...

Naga Jolokia (naga morich, bhut jolokia), the Indian chili tested hottest in the world at 1,040,000 SHU. The Red Savinaâ„¢ pepper, one of the hottest chilis, is rated at 580,000 SHU. Only Naga Jolokia and Dorset Naga are hotter. ... Download high resolution version (4402x1218, 12 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Chemical structure of dihydrocapsaicin Dihydrocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (Capsicum). ... Download high resolution version (4402x1219, 12 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Nordihydrocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (Capsicum). ... Download high resolution version (4402x1224, 12 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Chemical structure of homodihydrocapsaicin Homodihydrocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (Capsicum). ... Download high resolution version (4402x1213, 12 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Chemical structure of homocapsaicin Homocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (Capsicum). ... Download high resolution version (4402x1218, 13 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Nonivamide Nonivamide, also known as pelargonic acid vanillylamide, PAVA, nonylic vanillylamide, N-[4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzyl]nonanamide, N-vanillylnonamide, nonylic acid vanillyl amide, vanillyl pelargonic amide, pelargonyl vanillyl amide, and pseudocapsaicin, an organic compound, is a capsaicinoid, an amide of pelargonic acid and vanillylamine. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 221 pixelsFull resolution (4402 Ã— 1218 pixel, file size: 127 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ...

Natural function

Capsaicin is present in large quantities in the placental tissue which holds the seeds, the internal membranes and to a lesser extent in the other fleshy parts of the fruits of plants in the genus Capsicum. Despite popular belief, the seeds do not produce any capsaicin.^[2] Unlike many such fruits which have evolved to aid in seed dispersal by attracting animals, which consume the fruits and swallow the seeds, which pass through the digestive tract and are subsequently deposited elsewhere, the seeds of Capsicum plants are predominantly dispersed by birds, in which capsaicin has analgesic properties rather than acting as an irritant. Chilli pepper seeds consumed by birds pass through the digestive tract unharmed, whereas those consumed by mammals do not germinate at all. The presence of capsaicin in the fruits therefore protects them from being consumed by mammals. For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... Species C. annuum (incl. ... Biological dispersal refers to those processes by which a species maintains or expands the distribution of a population. ... For the Physics term GUT, please refer to Grand unification theory The gastrointestinal or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and... For other uses, see Bird (disambiguation). ... An analgesic (colloquially known as a painkiller) is any member of the diverse group of drugs used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). ...

It was recently discovered that tarantula venom activates the same pathway of pain as is activated by capsaicin, the first demonstrated case of a such a shared pathway in both plant and animal anti-mammal defense.^[3] For other uses, see Tarantula (disambiguation). ... Wasp sting, with droplet of venom Venom (literally, poison of animal origin) is any of a variety of toxins used by animals, for the purpose of defense and hunting. ...

Uses

Food

Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with human mucous membranes as found in the eye or the mouth, it is commonly used in food products to give them added spice or "heat" (pungency). The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale, although the high performance liquid chromatography method is now preferred . Typically the capsaicin is obtained from chilli peppers. Hot sauce is an example of a product customarily containing large amounts of capsaicin and may contain chilli peppers or pure capsaicin. Look up Pungency in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Naga Jolokia (naga morich, bhut jolokia), the Indian chili tested hottest in the world at 1,040,000 SHU. The Red Savinaâ„¢ pepper, one of the hottest chilis, is rated at 580,000 SHU. Only Naga Jolokia and Dorset Naga are hotter. ... High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a form of column chromatography used frequently in biochemistry and analytical chemistry. ... The chile pepper (also chili or chilli; from Spanish chile) is the fruit of the plant Capsicum from the nightshade family (Solanaceae). ... There are hundreds of varieties of hot sauce Hot sauce, chili sauce, or pepper sauce refer to any spicy sauce made from chili peppers and other ingredients. ...

Cooling and mechanical stimulation are the only proven methods to relieve the pain, however many questionable tips are widely perpetuated, including oil and oily food (probably because capsaicin in its pure state is poorly soluble in water but soluble in oil). However, the burning sensation will slowly fade away without any measure taken. Milk is the most popular form of relief; molecularly it attracts the burning ligands away from taste receptors (Dustrophsky, 2006). ^[4] Synthetic motor oil An oil is any substance that is in a viscous liquid state (oily) at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer, and is both hydrophobic (immiscible with water, literally water fearing) and lipophilic (miscible with other oils, literally fat loving). This general definition includes compound classes with otherwise unrelated...

Medical

Capsaicin is currently used in topical ointments to relieve the pain of peripheral neuropathy such as post-herpetic neuralgia caused by shingles. It may be used in concentrations of between 0.025% and 0.075%. An ointment is a viscous semisolid preparation used topically on a variety of body surfaces. ... Neuropathy is usually short for peripheral neuropathy, meaning a disease of the peripheral nervous system. ... Neuralgia is a painful disorder of the nerves. ... Herpes zoster, colloquially known as shingles, is the reactivation of varicella zoster virus, leading to a crop of painful blisters over the area of a dermatome. ...

It may also be used as a cream for the temporary relief of minor aches and pains of muscles and joints associated with arthritis, simple backache, strains and sprains. The treatment typically involves the application of a topical anesthetic until the area is numb. Then the capsaicin is applied by a therapist wearing rubber gloves and a face mask. The capsaicin remains on the skin until the patient starts to feel the "heat", at which point it is promptly removed. Capsaicin is also available in large adhesive bandages that can be applied to the back. A top-down view of skeletal muscle Muscle (from Latin musculus little mouse [1]) is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. ... Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation; plural: arthritides) is a group of conditions where there is damage caused to the joints of the body. ... A sprain (from the French espraindre - to wring) is an injury which occurs to ligaments caused by a sudden over stretching (for the muscle injury, see strain). ... Anesthesia (AE), also anaesthesia (BE), is the process of blocking the perception of pain and other sensations. ... Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a diagnosis. ... A PVC glove A rubber glove is a glove made out of rubber. ... Typical sticking plaster Reverse of a sticking plaster Opened sticking plaster, showing the non-adhesive absorbent pad and adhesive An adhesive bandage (called a sticking plaster or just plaster in the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and South Africa; often called Band-aid generically in the United States, even though Band...

The result appears to be that the nerves are overwhelmed from the burning sensation and are unable to report pain for an extended period of time. With chronic exposure to capsaicin, neurons are depleted of neurotransmitters and it leads to reduction in sensation of pain and blockade of neurogenic inflammation. If capsaicin is removed, the neurons recover.^{[citation needed]} Nerves (yellow) Nerves redirects here. ... Drawing by Santiago RamÃ³n y Cajal of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum. ... Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between a presynaptic and a postsynaptic neuron. ... Neurogenic inflammation is a general term used to describe the local release of inflammatory mediators from afferent neurons such as substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide. ...

Capsaicin is being explored as a possible cure for diabetes by researchers in Toronto, Canada; capsaicin was injected into pancreatic sensory nerves of mice with Type 1 diabetes because of a suspected link between the nerves and diabetes.[2]

The American Association for Cancer Research reports studies suggesting capsaicin is able to kill prostate cancer cells by causing them to undergo apoptosis. ^[5] The studies were performed on tumors formed by human prostate cancer cell cultures grown in mouse models, and showed tumors treated with capsaicin were about one-fifth the size of the untreated tumors. It has long been noted that in Thailand, where lots of spicy food is consumed, there is very low incidence of gastrointestinal cancers, including colorectal and stomach cancers, compared to the rest of Asia, including Japan and China.^{[citation needed]} Mexico also has low rates of the same cancers compared to the USA.^{[citation needed]} The American Association for Cancer Research (AACR) is an organization based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, that focuses on aspects of cancer research. ... Prostate cancer is a disease in which cancer develops in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system. ... A section of mouse liver showing an apoptotic cell indicated by an arrow Apoptosis (pronounced apo tÅ sis) is a process of suicide by a cell in a multicellular organism. ... Epithelial cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) Cell culture is the term applied when growing cells in a synthetic environment. ...

Another study carried out at the University of Nottingham suggests capsaicin is able to trigger apoptosis in human lung cancer cells as well.^[6] The University of Nottingham is a leading research and teaching university in the city of Nottingham, in the East Midlands of England. ... Lung cancer is the malignant transformation and expansion of lung tissue, and is the most lethal of all cancers worldwide, responsible for 1. ...

Capsaicin is also the key ingredient in the experimental drug Adlea, which is in Phase 2 trials as a long-acting analgesic to treat post-surgical and osteoarthritis pain for weeks to months after a single injection to the site of pain.^{[citation needed]}

Non-lethal force

Capsaicin is also the active ingredient in the chemical riot control agent pepper spray. When the spray comes in contact with skin, especially eyes or mucous membranes, it is very painful. Refer to the Scoville scale for a comparison of pepper spray to other sources of capsaicin. Pepper spray (also known as OC spray (from Oleoresin Capsicum), OC gas, capsicum spray, or oleoresin capsicum) is a lachrymatory agent (a chemical compound that irritates the eyes to cause tears, pain, and even temporary blindness) that is used in riot control, crowd control and personal self-defense, including defense... Beyond overall skin structure, refer below to: See-also. ... For other uses, see Eye (disambiguation). ... The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular: mucosa) are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, and are involved in absorption and secretion. ... Naga Jolokia (naga morich, bhut jolokia), the Indian chili tested hottest in the world at 1,040,000 SHU. The Red Savinaâ„¢ pepper, one of the hottest chilis, is rated at 580,000 SHU. Only Naga Jolokia and Dorset Naga are hotter. ...

In large quantities, capsaicin can cause death. Symptoms of overdose include difficulty breathing, blue skin, and convulsions. The large amount needed to kill an adult human and the low concentration of capsaicin in chillis make accidental poisoning by chilli consumption exceedingly unlikely. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Possible drug abuse deterrent

Clifford Woolf, the Richard J. Kitz Professor of Anesthesia Research at Harvard Medical School, has suggested using capsaicin to deter abuse of certain extended-release drugs such as OxyContin and Ritalin.^[7] When taken as prescribed, opioid prescription drugs such as OxyContin or stimulant drugs such as Adderall XR release their active chemical over time, but when crushed and snorted, taken as a suppository, chewed, or injected, the larger than normal dosage is absorbed all at once and a much stronger effect is produced that can be highly addictive and dangerous due to the higher risk of overdose. Woolf has argued that adding capsaicin into the capsules would be a safe way to deter abuse. A person taking the capsule in the prescribed way (i.e., swallowing it whole) would suffer no ill effects from the additive. However, a person crushing it would expose the irritant. Anyone then swallowing it, snorting it, or injecting it would be exposed to the full power of the chemical. "Imagine snorting an extract of 50 jalapeño peppers and you get the idea," Woolf said in an interview with the Harvard University Gazette. As of 2006, Woolf's proposal is still in the preliminary stages of development and the additive has not yet entered the production stage. Harvard Medical School (HMS) is one of the graduate schools of Harvard University. ... Methylphenidate (C14H19NO2), or MPH, is an amphetamine-like prescription stimulant commonly used to treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children and adults. ... Adderall® CII is a pharmaceutical amphetamine usually used to treat attention deficit disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and narcolepsy. ... 2006 is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Pest deterrent

Capsaicin is also used to deter pests. A common example is the use of ground-up or crushed dried chilli pods in birdseed to deter squirrels, since birds are unaffected by capsaicin. Insects that feed on pepper and related plants are also unaffected.

Mechanism of action

The burning and painful sensations associated with capsaicin result from its chemical interaction with sensory neurons. Capsaicin, as a member of the vanilloid family, binds to a receptor called the vanilloid receptor subtype 1 (VR1). ^[8] First cloned in 1997, VR1 is an ion channel-type receptor. VR1, which can also be stimulated with heat and physical abrasion, permits cations to pass through the cell membrane and into the cell when activated. The resulting depolarization of the neuron stimulates it to signal the brain. By binding to the VR1 receptor, the capsaicin molecule produces the same sensation that excessive heat or abrasive damage would cause, explaining why the spiciness of capsaicin is described as a burning sensation. Drawing by Santiago RamÃ³n y Cajal of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum. ... Transmembrane receptors are integral membrane proteins, which reside and operate typically within a cells plasma membrane, but also in the membranes of some subcellular compartments and organelles. ... The vanilloid receptor subtype 1 (TRPV1) is a nonselective ligand-gated cation channel that may be activated by a wide variety of exogenous and endogenous stimuli, including heat greater than 43Â°C, low pH, anandamide, and capsaicin. ... Ion channels are pore-forming proteins that help to establish and control the small voltage gradient that exists across the plasma membrane of all living cells (see cell potential) by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. ... A cation is an ion with positive charge. ... Look up cell membrane in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In biology, depolarization is the event a cell undergoes when its membrane potential grows more positive with respect to the extracellular solution. ... A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane. ...

The VR1 ion channel has subsequently been shown to be a member of the superfamily of TRP ion channels, and as such is now referred to as TRPV1. There are a number of different TRP ion channels that have been shown to be sensitive to different ranges of temperature and probably are responsible for our range of temperature sensation. Thus, capsaicin does not actually cause a chemical burn, or indeed any damage to tissue at all; it causes only the sensation of one. Ion channels are pore-forming proteins that help to establish and control the small voltage gradient that exists across the plasma membrane of all living cells (see cell potential) by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. ... There is a real need to make clear to what transient refers in a transient receptor potential, and the advice of the wider community is solicited to fill this need. ... Ion channels are present in the membranes that surround all biological cells. ... There is a real need to make clear to what transient refers in a transient receptor potential, and the advice of the wider community is solicited to fill this need. ... Ion channels are present in the membranes that surround all biological cells. ... A chemical burn occurs when living tissue is exposed to an extremely reactive chemical substance such as a strong acid or base. ...

Toxicity

Acute health effects

Capsaicin is a highly irritant material requiring proper protective goggles, respirators, and proper hazmat handling procedures. It is hazardous in cases of skin contact (irritant, sensitizer), of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation (lung irritant, lung sensitizer). Severe over-exposure can result in death.^[9] Painful exposures to capsaicin-containing peppers are among the most common plant-related exposures presented to poison centers.^[10] They cause burning or stinging pain to the skin, and if ingested in large amounts by adults or small amounts by children, can produce nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and burning diarrhea.^[10] Eye exposure produces intense tearing, pain, conjunctivitis, and blepharospasm.^[10] A blepharospasm (from blepharo (eyelid) and spasm (uncontrolled muscle contraction)) is any abnormal tic or twitch of the eyelid. ...

Treatment after exposure

The primary treatment is removal from exposure. Contaminated clothing should be removed and placed in airtight bags to prevent secondary exposure. Skin irrigation with copious cold water is used for significant dermal exposures.^[10] Symptomatic treatments, such as topical ophthalmic anesthetics, nebulized bronchodilators, or oral antihistamines and corticosteroids, are indicated as appropriate in more severely affected victims.^[10] Capsaicin-induced dermatitis has been treated variably with immersion in water or oil, vinegar, bleach, lidocaine gel, and topical antacid suspensions. Cold water produces earlier symptomatic relief, but oil immersion has longer-lasting benefit.^[10]

Effects of dietary consumption

The effects of ingestion of small quantities has given different experimental results. One study showed no mucosal erosions or other abnormalities after eating ground jalapeño peppers.^[11] Whereas another showed mucosal microbleeding and even one case of grossly visible gastric bleeding after eating red and black peppers. This study also showed "no spice was significantly different from aspirin in any parameter studied."^[12] Other studies have shown an association between chronic consumption of capsaicin-rich foods and stomach cancer, yet one such study was not adjusted to any other factors in diet.^[13] Another of the said studies also showed a similar risk to stomach cancer with higher consumption of rice.^[14] For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation). ...

References

^ Stewart C Jr, Kang BC, Liu K, Mazourek M, Moore SL, Yoo EY, Kim BD, Paran I, Jahn MM. The Pun1 gene for pungency in pepper encodes a putative acyltransferase. Plant J. 2005 Jun;42(5):675-88. [1] Accessed June 15, 2007
^ New Mexico State University - College of Agriculture and Home Economics (2005). [http://spectre.nmsu.edu/dept/academic.html?i=1274&s=sub Chile Information - Frequently Asked Questions]. Retrieved on May 17, 2007.
^ Siemens J, Zhou S, Piskorowski R, Nikai T, Lumpkin EA, Basbaum AI, King D, Julius D. (2006). Spider toxins activate the capsaicin receptor to produce inflammatory pain..
^ Dave DeWitt (1999). Burning in the Mouth, Fire in the Belly. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
^ American Association for Cancer Research (2006). Pepper component hot enough to trigger suicide in prostate cancer cells. Retrieved on January 27, 2007.
^ BBC News (2007). How spicy foods can kill cancers. Retrieved on January 09, 2007.
^ Cromie WJ (2006) "Using chilli peppers to burn drug abusers" Harvard University Gazette accessed 24 January 2006
^ Story, Gina M. & Lillian Cruz-Orengo (2007), "Feel the Burn", American Scientist 95 (4): pp. 326-333
^ Capsaicin Material Safety Data Sheet (pdf). sciencelab.com (2007). Retrieved on 2007-07-13.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Goldfrank, L R. (ed.). Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1167.
^ Graham DY, Smith JL, Opekun AR. (1988). "Spicy food and the stomach. Evaluation by videoendoscopy.". JAMA 260 (23).
^ Myers BM, Smith JL, Graham DY. (1987). "Effect of red pepper and black pepper on the stomach.". Am J Gastroenterol 82 (3).
^ López-Carrillo L, López-Cervantes M, Robles-Díaz G, et al (2003). "Capsaicin consumption, Helicobacter pylori positivity and gastric cancer in Mexico". Int. J. Cancer 106 (2): 277-82. DOI:10.1002/ijc.11195. PMID 12800206.
^ Mathew A, Gangadharan P, Varghese C, Nair MK. (2000). "Diet and stomach cancer: a case-control study in South India.". Eur J Cancer Prev. 9 (2).

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anthranilate and capsaicin" The Journal of Experimental Biology 207, 715-722 Published by The Company of Biologists 2004

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