Carrageenans or carrageenins (pronounced [ˌkærəˈgiːnəns]) are a family of linear sulphated polysaccharides extracted from red seaweeds. The name is derived from a type of seaweed that is abundant along the Irish coastline near the village of Carragheen. Gelatinous extracts of carrageen seaweed (also known as Irish moss) have been used as food additives for hundreds of years.^[1] Articles with similar titles include the NATO phonetic alphabet, which has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet”. For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English. ... Polysaccharides (sometimes called glycans) are relatively complex carbohydrates. ... Ascophyllum nodosum exposed to the sun in Nova Scotia, Canada Dead Mans Fingers (Codium fragile) off Massachusetts coast For the band, see; Seaweed (band) For the rock musician, see; Seaweed (musician) Seaweeds are any of a large number of marine benthic algae. ... Binomial name Chondrus crispus Stackhouse Irish moss, or carrageen moss (Irish carraigín, moss of the rock) is a species of red algae (Chondrus crispus) which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. ... Binomial name Chondrus crispus Stackhouse Irish moss, or carrageen moss (Irish carraigín, moss of the rock) is a species of red alga (Chondrus crispus Stackhouse) which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. ...

Properties

Carrageenans are large, highly flexible molecules which curl forming helical structures. This gives them the ability to form a variety of different gels at room temperature. They are widely used in the food and other industries as thickening and stabilizing agents. A particular advantage is that they are thixotropic — they thin under shear stress and recover their viscosity once the stress is removed. This means that they are easy to pump but stiffen again afterwards. A helix (pl: helices), from the Greek word έλικας/έλιξ, is a twisted shape like a spring, screw or a spiral (correctly termed helical) staircase. ... In optical filters and theatrical lighting a color gel is a transparent or translucent colored panel used to change the color of transmitted light. ... The introduction of this article does not provide enough context for readers unfamiliar with the subject. ... The tail of a Lufthansa airliner (Airbus A319) in flight, showing the horizontal stabilizer Mathematics: see Group action. ... A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscosity changes with the applied strain rate. ... Shear stress is a stress state where the stress is parallel or tangential to a face of the material, as opposed to normal stress when the stress is perpendicular to the face. ... Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform under shear stress. ...

There are three main commercial classes of carrageenan:

• Kappa — strong, rigid gels. Produced from Kappaphycus cottonii
• Iota — soft gels. Produced from Eucheuma spinosum
• Lambda — form gels when mixed with proteins rather than water, used to thicken dairy products. The most common source is Gigartina from Southern Europe.

It is interesting to note, however, that a lot of red algal species produce different types of carrageenans during their developmental history. For instance, the genera Gigartina produces mainly Kappa carrageenans during its gametophytic stage, and Lambda carrageenans during its sporophytic stage. See Alternation of generations. A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... A gametophyte is the haploid structure or phase of life of a sexually reproducing plant. ... A sporophyte is the diploid structure or phase of life of a sexually reproducing plant. ... Sporic or diplohaplontic life cycle. ...

All are soluble in hot water, but in cold water only the Lambda form (and the sodium salts of the other two) are soluble.

When used in food products, carrageenan has the EU additive E-number E407 or E407a when present as "Processed eucheuma seaweed". Although introduced on an industrial scale in the 1930s, the first use was in China around 600 BC (where Gigartina was used) and in Ireland around 400 AD. For the mathematical constant see: E (mathematical constant). ...

The largest producer is the Philippines, where cultivated seaweed produces about 80% of the world supply. The most commonly used are Cottonii (Kappaphycus alvarezii, K.striatum) and Spinosum (Eucheuma denticulatum), which together provide about three quarters of the World production. These grow at sea level down to about 2 metres. The seaweed is normally grown on nylon lines strung between bamboo floats and harvested after three months or so when each plant weighs around 1 kg.

The Cottonii variety has been reclassified as Kappaphycus cottonii by Maxwell Doty (1988), thereby introducing the genus Kappaphycus, on the basis of the phycocolloids produced (namely kappa carrageenan).

After harvest, the seaweed is dried, baled, and sent to the carrageenan manufacturer. There the seaweed is ground, sifted to remove impurities such as sand, and washed thoroughly. After treatment with hot alkali solution (e.g. 5-8% potassium hydroxide), the cellulose is removed from the carrageenan by centrifugation and filtration. The resulting carrageenan solution is then concentrated by evaporation. It is dried and ground to specification. Patterns in the sand Sand is a granular material made up of fine rock particles. ... Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures. ... In chemistry, alchemy and water treatment, filtration is the process of using a filter to mechanically separate a mixture. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Uses

• Desserts, ice cream, milk shakes, sauces — gel to increase viscosity
• Beer — clarifier to remove haze-causing proteins
• Pâtés and processed meat — Substitute fat to increase water retention and increase volume
• Toothpaste — stabilizer to prevent constituents separating
• Fire fighting foam — thickener to cause foam to become sticky
• Shampoo and cosmetic creams — thickener
• Air freshener gels
• Shoe polish — gel to increase viscosity
• Biotechnology — gel to immobilize cells/enzymes
• Pharmaceuticals — used as an inactive excipient in pills/tablets
• Carrageenan has also been used to thicken skim milk, in an attempt to emulate the consistency of whole milk. This usage did not become popular. It's used in some brands of soy milk
• Diet sodas
• Lambda carrageenan is used in animal models of inflammation used to test analgesics, because dilute carrageenan solution (1-2%) injected subcutaneously causes swelling and pain.

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Sexual lubricant and microbicide

Laboratory studies suggest that carrageenans might function as topical microbicides, blocking sexually transmitted viruses such as HIV and herpes. A study published in August 2006, measuring infectivity of pseudoviruses in vitro, found it potentially a thousand times as effective against HPV. If effective, its cost compared to HPV vaccines and its ability to target any strain of the virus would make it an attractive prevention measure against cervical cancer, especially in developing countries.^[2] Some personal and condom lubricants are already made with carrageenan, and several of these products (such as Bioglide and Divine) were found to be potent HPV inhibitors in the study (though others that listed carrageenan in their ingredients were not).^[3] A microbicide is any compound or substance whose purpose is to reduce the infectivity of microbes, such as viruses or bacteria. ... Sexually transmissible diseases (STDs) — also referred to as venereal diseases (VD) or, infrequently, social disease — are diseases or infections that have a significant probability of transmission between humans by means of sexual contact, vaginal intercourse, oral sex, or anal sex. ... Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... Species Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) Herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) This article is about the virus. ... “HPV” redirects here. ... Human papillomavirus vaccine (HPV) is a vaccine designed to immunize against certain sexually transmitted diseases, such as cervical cancer and genital warts, which are caused by human papillomaviruses. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... A condom is a device, usually made of latex, or more recently polyurethane, that is used during sexual intercourse. ...

Although the researchers are optimistic and show that the products "block HPV infectivity in vitro, even when diluted a million-fold", they emphasize that "it would be inappropriate to recommend currently available products for use as topical microbicides" until further human tests are complete. (By comparison, similarly optimistic results were expected for HIV prevention by cellulose sulfate gels, based on early tests, but the clinical trials had to be halted when the gel was found to increase incidence of HIV infection.)^[4]

A clinical trial by Population Council examining whether a carrageenan-based product known as Carraguard is effective as a topical microbicide for blocking HIV infection in women is expected to be completed in 2007. The Population Council is an international, nonprofit, non-governmental organization that seeks to improve the well-being and reproductive health of current and future generations around the world and to help achieve a humane, equitable, and sustainable balance between people and resources. ... A microbicide is any compound or substance whose purpose is to reduce the infectivity of microbes, such as viruses or bacteria. ...

While effectiveness trials have not been completed and side effects have not been ruled out, companies are already planning to capitalize on the discovery, such as Dreamspan naming their lubricant Carrageenan after its principal ingredient.^[5][6]

Health concerns

There is evidence from studies performed on rats, guinea pigs and monkeys which indicates that degraded carrageenan (poligeenan) may cause ulcerations in the gastro-intestinal tract and gastro-intestinal cancer.^[7] Poligeenan is produced from carrageenan subjected to high temperatures and acidity. The average carrageenan molecule weighs over 100,000 Da while poligeenans have a molecular weight of less than 50,000 Da. A scientific committee working on behalf of the European Commission has recommended that the amount of degraded carrageenan be limited to a maximum of 5% (which is the limit of detection) of total carrageenan mass. Upon testing samples of foods containing high molecular weight carrageens, researchers found no poligeenan.^[8] Species 50 species; see text *Several subfamilies of Muroids include animals called rats. ... Binomial name Cavia porcellus (Linnaeus, 1758) Guinea pigs (also called cavies) are rodents belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia, originally indigenous to the Andes. ... Approximate worldwide distribution of monkeys. ... For the Physics term GUT, please refer to Grand unification theory The gastrointestinal or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and... For other uses, see Cancer (disambiguation). ... Fig. ... Acidity redirects here. ... The unified atomic mass unit (u), or dalton (Da), is a small unit of mass used to express atomic masses and molecular masses. ... The molecular mass of a substance (less accurately called molecular weight and abbreviated as MW) is the mass of one molecule of that substance, relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12). ... The unified atomic mass unit (u), or dalton (Da), is a small unit of mass used to express atomic masses and molecular masses. ... A committee is a (relatively) small group that can serve one of several functions: Governance: in organizations too large for all the members to participate in decisions affecting the organization as a whole, a committee (such as a Board of Directors) is given the power to make decisions. ... The Commission seat in Brussels The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive body of the European Union. ...

A recent publication indicates that carrageenan induces inflammation in human intestinal epithelial cells in tissue culture through a Bcl10-mediated pathway that leads to activation of NFkappaB and IL-8. Carrageenan may be immunogenic due to its unusual alpha-1,3-galactosidic link that is part of its disaccharide unit structure. Consumption of carrageenan may have a role in intestinal inflammation and possibly inflammatory bowel disease, since Bcl10 resembles NOD2, mutations of which are associated with genetic proclivity to Crohn's Disease.

See also

• Agar
• List of food additives

This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This is (intended to be) a comprehensive alphabetical list of food additives. ...

References

1. ^ FAO Agar and Carrageenan Manual
2. ^ Carraguard
3. ^ Carrageenan is a potent inhibitor of papillomavirus infection, Buck, et al. PLoS Pathog. 2006 Jul;2(7):e69
4. ^ Organization Halts Clinical Trial For Potential Microbicide For Preventing HIV Infection
5. ^ Arizona Republic article about the development of Carrageenan.
6. ^ Dreamspan Product Innovation, manufacturer of Carrageenan
7. ^ Review of harmful gastrointestinal effects of carrageenan in animal experiments J. K. Tobacman. Environ Health Perspect. (2001) 109(10):983
8. ^ Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Carrageenan - 5 March 2003

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