Catherine de' Medici
Queen consort of France
Catherine de' Medici, by François Clouet.
Coronation	10 June 1549, Saint-Denis
Born	13 April 1519
	Florence
Died	5 January 1589
	Château de Blois
Buried	Saint-Sauveur, Blois. Reburied at Saint-Denis in 1610.
Consort	1547–1559
Consort to	Henry II of France
Issue	Francis II, Elisabeth of Valois, Claude of Valois, Louis, Charles IX, Henry III, Marguerite of Valois, François, Duke of Anjou, Victoria of Valois, Joan of Valois
Father	Lorenzo II de' Medici, Duke of Urbino
Mother	Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne

Catherine de' Medici (April 13, 1519 – January 5, 1589) was born in Florence, Italy, as Caterina Maria Romola di Lorenzo de' Medici. Her parents were Lorenzo II de' Medici, Duke of Urbino, and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, countess of Boulogne. She was queen consort of King Henry II of France from 1547 to 1559. source: http://www. ... » Diane de Poitiers by François Clouet (1571) at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC Elisabeth of Austria by François Clouet (1571) (Louvre) Wikimedia Commons has media related to: François Clouet François Clouet (died 22 December 1572), son of Jean Clouet, was a French Renaissance miniaturist... is the 161st day of the year (162nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events July - Ketts Rebellion Francis Xavier arrives in Japan. ... The Basilica of Saint Denis (in French, la Basilique de Saint-Denis), a famous burial site for French monarchs, is located in Saint Denis (near Paris). ... is the 103rd day of the year (104th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events March 4 - Hernán Cortés lands in Mexico. ... This article is about the city in Italy. ... is the 5th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events Rebellion of the Catholic League against King Henry III of France, in revenge for his murder of Duke Henry of Guise. ... The rear of the Château de Blois Staircase in the Château de Blois The Royal Château de Blois is located in the Loir-et-Cher département in the Loire Valley, in France. ... Year 1547 was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... January 15 - Elizabeth I of England is crowned in Westminster Abbey. ... Henry II (French: Henri II) (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559), a member of the Valois Dynasty, was King of France from March 31, 1547, until his death. ... Francis II (French: François II) (January 19, 1544 – December 5, 1560) was a King of France (1559 – 1560). ... Élisabeth de Valois, by Sofonisba Anguissola, 1565 Élisabeth de Valois (April 13, 1545 – October 3, 1568) was a daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici. ... Claude of Valois (November 12, 1547 _ February 21, 1575) was a daughter of King Henry II of France and the wife of Charles II, Duke of Lorraine Categories: Stub | 1547 births | 1575 deaths ... Charles IX (June 27, 1550 – May 30, 1574) born Charles-Maximilien, was a member of the Valois Dynasty, King of France from 1560 until his death. ... Henry III of France (September 19, 1551 – August 2, 1589), also Henry of Poland (also called Henry of Valois, Henryk Walezy), born Alexandre-Édouard of France, was a member of the House of Valois. ... Marguerite de Valois (1553 - 1615), Queen Margot, Queen of France and Navarre. ... Hercule François, Duke of Anjou and Alençon, (March 18, 1555 – June 19, 1584) was the youngest son of Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici. ... Victoria of Valois, (June,1556 – June, 1556) was the last daughter (along with her twin sister, Joan of Valois who was born to King Henri II of France and his wife, Catherine de Medici. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Catherine de Medici. ... Portrait of Lorenzo de Medici, Duke of Urbino. ... Madeleine de la Tour dAuvergne (birthdate unknown though apparently in 1501, died about 1519) was the wife of Lorenzo (II) de Medicis, Duke of Urbino, and the mother of Catherine of Medici (1519-1589) who became queen of France. ... is the 103rd day of the year (104th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events March 4 - Hernán Cortés lands in Mexico. ... is the 5th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events Rebellion of the Catholic League against King Henry III of France, in revenge for his murder of Duke Henry of Guise. ... Portrait of Lorenzo de Medici, Duke of Urbino. ... Madeleine de la Tour dAuvergne (birthdate unknown though apparently in 1501, died about 1519) was the wife of Lorenzo (II) de Medicis, Duke of Urbino, and the mother of Catherine of Medici (1519-1589) who became queen of France. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Henry II (French: Henri II) (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559), a member of the Valois Dynasty, was King of France from March 31, 1547, until his death. ...

In 1533, at the age of fourteen, Caterina married Henry, second son of King Francis I of France and Queen Claude. When the dauphin, Prince François died in 1536, Henry became the heir to the throne and Catherine as she was now known, his dauphine. Henry ascended the throne as Henry II in 1547. Throughout his reign, he excluded Catherine from influence and instead showered favours on his mistress, Diane de Poitiers. Henry’s death in 1559 thrust Catherine into the political arena as mother of the frail fifteen-year-old King Francis II. When he too died in 1560, she was appointed regent for her ten-year-old son King Charles IX, with sweeping powers. After Charles died in 1574, Catherine played a key role in the reign of the third of her sons to become king, Henry III. He dispensed with her advice only in the last months of her life. Francis I of France (French: François Ier) (September 12, 1494 – March 31, 1547), called the Father and Restorer of Letters (le Père et Restaurateur des Lettres), was crowned King of France in 1515 in the cathedral at Reims and reigned until 1547. ... Claude of France with her daughters, Louise and Charlotte (who died young); Madeleine, Queen of Scotland (right); her youngest daughter, Marguerite, duchess of Savoy (left), and Eleanor of Spain Claude of France (14 October 1499 – 20 July 1524), Queen consort of France and duchess of Brittany in her own right... Coat of Arms of the Dauphins of France. ... François, Dauphin of France, (September 28, 1518 – August 10, 1536) was the 1st son and heir of King Francis I of France and Claude de France, daughter of Louis XII of France. ... DAUPHINE is the female form of the particular French feudal (comital or princely) title of Dauphin (also anglicized as Dolphin), applied to the wife of a Dauphin (usually in the sense of heir to the French royal throne). ... Diane de Poitiers (September 3, 1499 - April 25, 1566) was a noblewoman and a fixture at the courts of Francis I and Henri II of France. ... See the appropriate page for Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire François II of France Francis II of the Two Sicilies This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Regent, from the Latin, a person selected to administer a state because the ruler is a minor or is not present or debilitated. ... Charles IX (June 27, 1550 – May 30, 1574) born Charles-Maximilien, was a member of the Valois Dynasty, King of France from 1560 until his death. ... Henry III of France (September 19, 1551 – August 2, 1589), also Henry of Poland (also called Henry of Valois, Henryk Walezy), born Alexandre-Édouard of France, was a member of the House of Valois. ...

Catherine's three weak sons reigned in an age of almost constant civil and religious war in France. The monarchy had no control over the causes of these conflicts, which would have daunted even a mature king. At first, Catherine compromised and made concessions to the Huguenots, as the Protestant rebels became known.^[1] She failed, however, to grasp the theological issues at the root of their movement. Later, she resorted in frustration and anger to hard-line policies against them.^[2] As a result, she was blamed for all the sins of the régime, in particular for the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572, in which thousands of Huguenots were butchered in Paris and throughout France. Lurid tales printed about Catherine in the pamphlets of the day gave birth to "the black legend" of the wicked queen. She was branded as a Machiavellian Renaissance prince who fed a lust for power with dark crimes, poisonings, even witchcraft. The Huguenot poet Agrippa d'Aubigné called her, "the Florentine plague".^[3] In the nineteenth century, historian Jules Michelet described her as that "maggot which came out of Italy's tomb".^[4] In the 16th and 17th centuries, the name of Huguenots came to apply to members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France. ... 19th century painting by François Dubois The St. ... Detail of the portrait of Machiavelli, ca 1500, in the robes of a Florentine public official Niccolò Machiavelli (May 3, 1469—June 21, 1527) was an Italian political philosopher during the Renaissance. ... Agrippa dAubigné. Théodore-Agrippa dAubigné (February 8, 1552 – April 29, 1630) was a French poet, soldier, propagandist and chronicler. ... Jules Michelet (August 21, 1798 - February 9, 1874) was a French historian. ...

Some recent historians have excused Catherine from the worst excesses of the crown.^[5] R. J. Knecht, however, points out that proof of her ruthless streak can be found in her letters. Nicola Sutherland also warns against overstating Catherine's real power. Far from bestriding France, she fought a losing battler for control of a kingdom that was lapsing into chaos.^[6] Her policies, therefore, may be seen a series of desperate efforts to keep the Valois monarchy on the throne at all costs.^[7] It is arguable that without Catherine, her sons would never have survived in power.^[8] The years in which they reigned have been called "the age of Catherine de' Medici".^[9]

Birth and upbringing

Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, Pope Leo X, by Raphael. Leo noted with satisfaction how "fine and fat" Catherine was as a baby.^[10]

According to a chronicler, when Catherine de’ Medici was born, in Florence on Wednesday 13 April 1519, her parents, were "as pleased as if it had been a boy".^[11] Their pleasure, however, was short-lived. Catherine's mother, Madeleine de la Tour d’Auverne, countess of Bologne, died on 28 April at the age of seventeen. Catherine's father, Lorenzo II de’ Medici, duke of Urbino, died on 4 May, probably from syphilis.^[12] The young couple had been married the year before at Amboise as part of the alliance between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X, Lorenzo’s uncle, against the Habsburg emperor Maximilian I. King Francis asked that Catherine be raised at the French court, but Pope Leo had other plans for her.^[10] He intended to marry her to his brother's bastard son, Ippolito de' Medici, and set the pair up as rulers of Florence. Pope Leo X (portrait by Raphael) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Pope Leo X (portrait by Raphael) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Pope Leo X, born Giovanni di Lorenzo de Medici (11 December 1475 – 1 December 1521) was Pope from 1513 to his death. ... This article is about the Renaissance artist. ... Amboise is a medieval town and a commune of France, in the Indre-et-Loire département, on the banks of the Loire River, 14 miles east of Tours. ... Francis I of France (French: François Ier) (September 12, 1494 – March 31, 1547), called the Father and Restorer of Letters (le Père et Restaurateur des Lettres), was crowned King of France in 1515 in the cathedral at Reims and reigned until 1547. ... Pope Leo X Leo X, né Giovanni di Lorenzo de Medici (December 11, 1475 - December 1, 1521), was the only pope who has bestowed his own name upon his age, and one of the few whose original extraction has corresponded in some measure with the splendour of the pontifical dignity. ... Maximilian I of Habsburg (March 22, 1459 – January 12, 1519) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death. ... Ippolito de Medici (1511-1535) was the illegitimate only son of Cardinal Giuliano de Medici. ...

Catherine was first cared for by her grandmother, Alfonsina Orsini. After Alfonsina died in 1520, Catherine was brought up by her aunt, Clarissa Strozzi, among her own children. Catherine loved her Strozzi cousins for the rest of their lives, treating them as brothers and sisters.^[10] The death of Pope Leo in 1521 led to a break in Medici power, until Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici was elected Pope Clement VII in 1523. Clement housed Catherine in the Palazzo Medici in Florence, where she lived in state. She was known to the Florentine people as "the little duchess".^[13] Clarice de Medici (1493 - May 3, 1528) was the daughter of Piero di Lorenzo de Medici and Alfonsina Orsini. ... For the antipope (1378-1394) see Antipope Clement VII. Pope Clement VII Clement VII, né Giulio di Giuliano de Medici (1478 – September 25, 1534) was pope from 1523 to 1534. ... The Palazzo Medici, also called the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, is a Renaissance palace located in Florence. ...

Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici, Pope Clement VII. By Sebastiano del Piombo, c.1531. Clement called Catherine's betrothal to Henry of Orléans "the greatest match in the world".^[10]

In 1527, the Medici were overthrown in Florence, and Catherine was taken hostage and placed in a series of convents.^[14] Clement had no choice but to crown Charles as Holy Roman emperor in return for his help in retaking the city.^[15] In October 1529, Charles's troops laid siege to Florence. As the siege dragged on, voices called for Catherine to be killed and exposed on the city walls or sent to a brothel to spoil her marriage value. When soldiers arrived to move her to the fortified Santa Lucia convent, she put up a fight. They made her ride through the streets on a donkey, jeered by an angry crowd.^[16] Though the city withstood all bombardment, hunger and plague finally forced its surrender on 12 August 1530. Clement called Catherine to Rome, greeting her with open arms and tears in his eyes. Then he set about the serious business of finding her a husband.^[17] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... For the antipope (1378–1394) see antipope Clement VII. Pope Clement VII (May 26, 1478 – September 25, 1534), born Giulio di Giuliano de Medici, was a cardinal from 1513 to 1523 and was Pope from 1523 to 1534. ... Sebastiano del Piombo (1485 – June 21, 1547), Italian painter, was born at Venice. ... Henry II (French: Henri II) (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559), a member of the Valois Dynasty, was King of France from March 31, 1547, until his death. ... There have been a number of sieges of the city of Florence: Siege of Florence (1312), part of the Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines Siege of Florence (1529-1530), part of the War of the League of Cognac Category: ...

Marriage

Wedding

Henry, duke of Orléans. By Corneille de Lyon. During his childhood, Henry spent almost four and a half years as a hostage in Spain, an experience that marked him for life.^[18]

Catherine was never destined to be a beauty. On her visit to Rome, the Venetian envoy described her as "small of stature, and thin, and without delicate features, but having the protruding eyes peculiar to the Medici family".^[19] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 512 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1576 × 1846 pixel, file size: 417 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 512 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1576 × 1846 pixel, file size: 417 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Henry II (French: Henri II) (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559), a member of the Valois Dynasty, was King of France from March 31, 1547, until his death. ... Corneille de Lyon was a painter born in The Netherlands in the early 1500s. ...

Clement lined up many suitors for Catherine, but when in early 1531, Francis I of France proposed his second son, Henry, duke of Orléans, Clement jumped at the chance. Henry was a real catch for Catherine, who despite her wealth was only a commoner. Clement called it "the greatest match in the world".^[10] Henry II (French: Henri II) (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559), a member of the Valois Dynasty, was King of France from March 31, 1547, until his death. ...

The wedding took place in Marseille on 28 October 1533.^[20] It was a grand affair, marked by extravagant display and gift-giving. For example, Clement presented the king of France with a supposed unicorn's horn.^[21] The Constable of France, Anne de Montmorency, had blown up part of Marseille to make room for a new wooden palace. Prince Henry danced and jousted for Catherine. She was reported to have been pleased with what she saw, a fit young man, his muscles toned from sports.^[22] The fourteen-year-old couple left their wedding ball at midnight, to carry out their marital duties. Queen Eleanor of France made Catherine ready for the marriage bed. Henry arrived in the bedroom with King Francis, who is said to have stayed until the marriage was consummated. Both Francis and Clement were well satisfied. Francis noted that “each had shown valour in the joust”.^[23] Clement visited the newlyweds in bed the following morning and gave the night’s events his blessing.^[24] City flag Coat of arms Motto: By her great deeds, the city of Massilia shines Location Coordinates Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country Region Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur Department Bouches-du-Rhône (13) Subdivisions 16 arrondissements (in 8 secteurs) Intercommunality Urban Community of Marseille Provence M... Anne de Montmorency, 1530. ... Eleanor of Habsburg Eleanor of Habsburg, also called Leonor of Castile or Eleanor of Austria (November 15, 1498 – February 25, 1558) was born Archduchess of Austria and Infanta of Castile, became subsequently in turn queen consort of Portugal (1518–1521) and of France, also duchess of Touraine (1547–1558) as...

Catherine saw little of her husband in their first year of marriage. The ladies of the court, however, treated her well, impressed with her intelligence and keenness to please.^[25] The honeymoon period, however, was brought to an abrupt end on 25 September 1534 by the death of Pope Clement. The next pope, Paul III, broke the alliance with France and refused to pay off Catherine's huge dowry. Catherine’s political value vanished overnight and with it her standing in the French court. King Francis lamented, "The girl has come to me stark naked."^[26] Pope Paul III, (1543) portrait by Titian (Tiziano Vecelli), Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte, Naples Paul III, né Alessandro Farnese (February 29, 1468 - November 10, 1549) was pope from 1534 to 1549. ...

Prince Henry showed not the slightest interest in Catherine as a wife. Instead, he openly took mistresses. Worse still, for the first ten years of the marriage, Catherine failed to produce any children. In 1537, one of Henry's mistresses, Philippa Duc, gave birth to a daughter.^[27] This proved to the public that Henry was virile, and piled more pressure on Catherine.

Dauphine

Unidentified baby of Catherine and Henry, probably Alexandre-Edouard, the future Henry III of France, who was born in 1551.

In 1536, Henry's older brother, François, died after overheating during a game of tennis. Catherine, as dauphine, was now expected to provide a future heir to the throne.^[28] According to Brantôme, "many people advised the king and the dauphin to repudiate her, since it was necessary to continue the line of France". The Venetian ambassador reported that Henry and Francis had discussed a divorce. Catherine meanwhile tried every known trick for getting pregnant, such as drinking mule's urine and placing cow dung and ground stags' antlers on her "source of life".^[29] On 20 January 1544, she finally gave birth to a son . The boy was named after King Francis, who greeted the news with tears of joy. After becoming pregnant once, Catherine seems to have had no trouble doing so again. She may have owed her change in luck to a doctor called Jean Fernel, who noticed slight abnormalities in the couple's sexual organs and advised them on how to solve the problem.^[30] Catherine went on to bear Henry a further nine children, six of whom survived infancy. The long-term future of the Valois line seemed assured. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Henry III of France (September 19, 1551 – August 2, 1589), also Henry of Poland (also called Henry of Valois, Henryk Walezy), born Alexandre-Édouard of France, was a member of the House of Valois. ... Francis (French: François), Dauphin of France, also Francis III, Duke of Brittany (September 28, 1518 – August 10, 1536), was the first son and heir of King Francis I of France and Claude of France, daughter of Louis XII of France. ... DAUPHINE is the female form of the particular French feudal (comital or princely) title of Dauphin (also anglicized as Dolphin), applied to the wife of a Dauphin (usually in the sense of heir to the French royal throne). ...

Catherine’s new-found ability to bear children, however, failed to improve the quality of her marriage. In 1538, at the age of nineteen, Henry had taken as his mistress the thirty-eight-year-old Diane de Poitiers, who was to prove the love of his life. Even so, he respected Catherine's status as his consort. When King Francis I died in 1547, therefore, Catherine duly became queen consort of France. She was crowned in the basilica of Saint-Denis in June 1549. Diane de Poitiers (September 3, 1499 - April 25, 1566) was a noblewoman and a fixture at the courts of Francis I and Henri II of France. ... West façade of Saint Denis Depiction of the Trinity over the main entrance The Basilica of Saint Denis (French: Basilique de Saint-Denis, or simply Basilique Saint-Denis) is the famous burial site of the French monarchs, comparable to Westminster Abbey in England. ...

Queen of France

Catherine de' Medici as queen of France. "Her mouth is too large and her eyes too prominent and colourless for beauty," wrote a Venetian envoy as Catherine approached forty, "but a very distinguished-looking woman, with a shapely figure, a beautiful skin and exquisitely shaped hands".^[31]

Catherine had minimal political influence during Henry's reign.^[32] Although she sometimes acted as regent during Henry's absences, her powers were strictly limited.^[33] In the words of the historian Ralph Roederer, “Politics died at her doorstep”.^[34]Henry began by sacking his father’s advisers. He gave the Château of Chenonceau, which Catherine had an eye on for herself, to his mistress Diane de Poitiers. She took her place at the centre of power, handing out gifts and accepting favours.^[35] In 1547, Henry spent a third of each day in Diane’s company. The imperial ambassador wrote that in the presence of guests, Henry would sit on her lap and play the guitar, chat about politics or fondle her breasts.^[36] Under Henry, the Guise brothers, sons of Claude, Duke of Guise, also rose to power. Charles de Lorraine became a cardinal in July 1547, and Francis, Duke of Guise, known as “scarface” (le belafré) from a battle wound, became the duke of Guise in 1550.^[37] Mary of Guise, their sister, had married James V of Scotland in 1538 and was the mother of Mary, Queen of Scots. At the age of five and a half, Mary was sent for safety to the French court, where she was promised to the Dauphin Francis.^[38] Catherine brought Mary up with her own children at the French court, while Mary of Guise governed Scotland as her daughter’s regent.^[39] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (745x1351, 323 KB) en: Catherine de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France de: Katharina von Medici, Frau von Heinrich II. und Königin von Frankreich File links The following pages link to this file: Catherine de Medici ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (745x1351, 323 KB) en: Catherine de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France de: Katharina von Medici, Frau von Heinrich II. und Königin von Frankreich File links The following pages link to this file: Catherine de Medici ... View of Château de Chenonceau from Jardin de Catherine de Medici1 Château de Chenonceau as seen from Diane de Poitiers gardens The Château de Chenonceau, near the small village of Chenonceaux, in the Indre-et-Loire département of the Loire Valley in France, was built on... Diane de Poitiers (September 3, 1499 - April 25, 1566) was a noblewoman and a fixture at the courts of Francis I and Henri II of France. ... Claude, Duke of Guise Coat of arms of the Duke of Guise Claude of Lorraine (October 20, 1496, Château de Condé-sur-Moselle, – April 12, 1550, Château de Joinville) was the first Duke of Guise, from 1528 to his death. ... The name Charles of Lorraine may refer to: Charles I, Duke of Lorraine Charles II, Duke of Lorraine Charles III, Duke of Lorraine Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine Prince Charles of Lorraine Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that... Francis, Duke of Guise Francis II, Prince of Joinville, Duke of Guise, Duke of Aumale (February 17, 1519 – February 24, 1563), called Balafré (the scarred), was a French soldier and politician. ... Marie de Guise Marie de Guise (in English, Mary of Guise) (November 22, 1515 – June 11, 1560) was the Queen Consort of James V of Scotland and the mother of Mary, Queen of Scots. ... James V (April 10, 1512 – December 14, 1542) was king of Scotland (September 9, 1513 – December 14, 1542). ...

Catherine and Henry were devoted parents by the standards of the day. Henry often played with the children and even assisted at their births. In 1556, pregnant with twin daughters, Catherine nearly died giving birth. Surgeons saved her life by breaking the legs of one of the two, who lay dead or dying in her womb for six hours.^[40] The surviving daughter, who died seven weeks later, was to be the last of Catherine’s children.

Catherine grimly tolerated Henry’s lovers, fearing divorce if she objected too strongly. "I always told him," she recalled in 1584, "that it was against my will, for no wife who loves her husband has ever loved his whore."^[41] Diane was happy that Henry was married to a woman who offered no threat. A Venetian envoy described Catherine as good-looking only when her face was veiled.^[42] Diane even encouraged the king to sleep with Catherine and father more children. Despite Henry's lovers, Catherine adored him. "I loved him so much," she wrote to her daughter Elisabeth after his death, “I was always afraid.”^[43]

On 3–4 April 1559, Henry signed the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, ending a long period of war in Italy and with the empire and England. The treaty was sealed with the betrothal of Catherine’s thirteen-year-old-daughter Elisabeth to Philip II of Spain.^[44] Elisabeth’s proxy wedding on 22 June was celebrated with festivities, balls, masques and five days of jousting. According to the memoirs of Marguerite de Valois, Catherine then had a dream that Henry lay injured, his face covered with blood. She reminded him that prophets Luca Gaurico and Nostradamus had warned him against single combat, and she begged him to take no part in the jousting.^[45] He took no notice of her. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis is an agreement reached between Elizabeth I of England and Henry II of France on April 2 and between Henry II and Philip II of Spain on April 3, 1559, at Le Cateau-Cambrésis, around twenty kilometres south-east of Cambrai, that ended... Philip II (Spanish: Felipe II de Habsburgo; Portuguese: Filipe I) (May 21, 1527 – September 13, 1598) was the first official King of Spain from 1556 until 1598, King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until 1598, king consort of England (as husband of Mary I) from 1554 to 1558, Lord... A wedding where the bride and groom are not actually present and are represented by other individuals. ... For the crater, see Gauricus (crater). ... Nostradamus: original portrait by his son Cesar Michel de Nostredame (December 14, 1503 – July 2, 1566), usually Latinized to Nostradamus, was a French apothecary and reputed seer who published collections of prophecies that have since become famous world-wide. ...

Henry II of France, by François Clouet, c. 1553. The astrologer Luca Gaurico warned Henry in 1552 to take particular care around his fortieth year to "avoid all single combat in an enclosed space".^[46]

Henry was wearing Diane’s black-and-white colours and riding a horse called Malheureux (Unfortunate).^[47] He defeated the dukes of Nemours and Guise, but the young Gabriel, comte de Montgomery, knocked him half out of the saddle. Henry insisted on riding against Montgomery again, though Catherine tried to stop him. This time, Montgomery's lance shattered into Henry's face.^[48] He came out of the clash reeling, his face pouring blood, with splinters "of a good bigness" sticking out of his eye and head.^[49] Amidst wailing from the ladies, Catherine, Diane, and Prince Francis all fainted. Henry was taken to the Château de Tournelles, where five splinters of wood were pulled from his head, one of which had pierced his eye and brain. The country's top medical experts were called. They dressed his wounds with egg-white, bled and purged him, and made him drink an ounce of barley gruel, which he vomited back up.^[50] Catherine stayed by his bedside, but Diane kept away, “for fear of being expelled by the Queen”, in the words of a chronicler. For the next ten days, Henry’s state fluctuated. At times he even felt well enough to dictate letters and listen to music. Slowly, however, he lost his sight, speech, and reason, and on 10 July he died. From that day on, Catherine took a broken lance as her emblem, inscribed with the words lacrymae hinc, hinc dolor (from this come my tears and my pain). For the rest of her life she wore black.^[51] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Henry II (French: Henri II) (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559), a member of the Valois Dynasty, was King of France from March 31, 1547, until his death. ... » Diane de Poitiers by François Clouet (1571) at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC Elisabeth of Austria by François Clouet (1571) (Louvre) Wikimedia Commons has media related to: François Clouet François Clouet (died 22 December 1572), son of Jean Clouet, was a French Renaissance miniaturist... For the crater, see Gauricus (crater). ... Gabriel, comte de Montgomery, seigneur de Lorges (c. ...

Queen mother

Francis II

Guise power

Francis II of France, by François Clouet. Francis found the crown so heavy at his coronation that four nobles had to hold it in place as he walked up the steps to his throne.^[52]

In what has been called a coup d’état, the Cardinal of Lorraine and the Duke of Guise seized power the day after Henry II’s death.^[53] The dauphin, Francis, who now became king at the age of fifteen, had married their niece, Mary, Queen of Scots, the year before. The Guise brothers quickly moved the young couple to the Louvre. They hoped to gain a march on Catherine while she was occupied with mourning. She put duty aside, however,^[54] and followed them to the Louvre, determined not to be shut out. The English ambassador reported a few days later that “the house of Guise ruleth and doth all about the French king”.^[55] For the moment, Catherine was happy to support the Guise coup as far as it served her purposes. She lost no time in forcing Diane de Poitiers to hand the crown jewels over and give Chenonceau back to the crown.^[56] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Francis II (French: François II) (January 19, 1544 – December 5, 1560) was a King of France (1559 – 1560). ... » Diane de Poitiers by François Clouet (1571) at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC Elisabeth of Austria by François Clouet (1571) (Louvre) Wikimedia Commons has media related to: François Clouet François Clouet (died 22 December 1572), son of Jean Clouet, was a French Renaissance miniaturist... John, Cardinal of Lorraine (1498-1550) Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine (1524-1574) Category: ... Duc de Guise was a title in the French nobility. ... This article is about the museum. ...

Despite his puny build and frail health, Francis II was deemed old enough to rule without a regent.^[57] Catherine was therefore not entitled to a role in his government. Nevertheless, all Francis's official acts began with the words:

This being the good pleasure of the Queen, my lady-mother, and I also approving of every opinion that she holdeth, am content and command that...".^[58]

The Guises set about persecuting the Protestants with zeal. They burned Protestant meeting places, for example, and executed those caught worshipping in them.^[59] The policy divided France sharply. Henry II had played the Guise and Montmorency factions off against each other. Now the crown was seen to be in the pocket of the Guise family. Catherine adopted a moderate stance and spoke up against the Guise persecution. As a good Catholic, however,^[60] she had no wish to be lectured on religion by Protestants. She told one pastor who sought her help that though she pitied the victims of the Guise purge, she did not wish "to be otherwise instructed or informed as to the truth or falsehood of their doctrine".^[61]

The Protestants looked for leadership to Antoine de Bourbon, king-consort of Navarre. He tended, however, to waver between the two faiths.^[62] As First Prince of the Blood, he had reason to resent being excluded from the government.^[63] The Guises, however, outwitted him with ease. In Catherine's words, he was "reduced to the position of a chambermaid".^[64] The Protestants found a more active leader in his brother, Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé. He backed a plot to overthrow the Guises by force.^[65] Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme (22 April 1518 _ 17 November 1562). ... There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... Louis I was the first Prince of Condé. Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé (May 7, 1530 – March 13, 1569) was a Huguenot leader and general. ...

Armed rebellion

When the Guises heard of the plot,^[66] they moved the king and court to the fortified Château of Amboise. The duke of Guise then launched an attack into the woods around the château. His troops took the rebels by surprise and killed many of them on the spot, including the leader, La Renaudie.^[67] Others they drowned in the river or strung up around the battlements while Catherine and the court watched on. Fifty-two nobles were executed in the courtyard. It was said that they sang psalms as they waited their turn, the chorus growing fainter with each death.^[68] When Catherine tried to save one captain, the Guises turned her down.^[69] The Royal Château at Amboise is a château located in Amboise, in the Indre-et-Loire département of the Loire Valley in France. ...

In June 1560, Michel de l'Hôpital was appointed Chancellor of France. He worked closely with Catherine to defend the law in the face of growing anarchy and seek the support of France's constitutional bodies.^[70] They both agreed on the need to resolve differences with the Protestants peacefully. Neither saw the need to punish Protestants who worshipped in private and did not take up arms. On 20 August 1560, Catherine and the chancellor put this policy to an assembly of notables at Fontainebleau. Catherine won the respect of both sides at Fontainebleau. Historians note the occasion as an early example of her statesmanship. Michel lHospital Michel de lHôpital (or lHospital) (c. ... This page is a list of French justice ministers. ... is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events February 27 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation of Scotland The first tulip bulb was brought from Turkey to the Netherlands. ... The Royal Château of Fontainebleau (in the Seine-et-Marne département) is one of the largest French royal châteaux. ...

However, the king of Navarre and his brother, Louis de Condé, had boycotted the assembly. Condé raised an army, which in autumn 1560 began to attack towns in the south. Catherine ordered him to court. As soon as he arrived, she had him arrested and thrown into prison. He was tried in November, found guilty of offences against the crown, and sentenced to death. However, a sudden turn of events was to save his life.

Death of the king

In early November, Francis II complained of buzzing in his ear and dizziness and, nursed by Catherine and Mary, began to suffer violent seizures which left him unable to speak. Soon fluids began to discharge from his ear, and treatment with rhubarb failed to help.^[71] Realising that if her son died, the First Prince of the Blood, Antoine of Navarre, might be appointed regent to her ten-year-old son Charles-Maximilien, Catherine accused him in front of the Guises of plotting against the crown. When Navarre protested his innocence, fearing the same fate as his brother, Catherine demanded he prove it by renouncing his right to the regency.^[72] The ploy, one of the first of the political manipulations for which Catherine became famous, worked; for her part, Catherine agreed to release Condé.^[73] As a result, when Francis died on 5 December 1560, after a huge eruption of fluid from his mouth and nose as well as his ear, ^[74] she assumed full control of the government of France, a remarkable achievement since the regency was traditionally the preserve of the princes of the blood at a time when the Salic law was often used to argue against political power of any sort for women.^[75] She summoned the Privy Council and opened the meeting with the following words: is the 339th day of the year (340th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events February 27 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation of Scotland The first tulip bulb was brought from Turkey to the Netherlands. ...

Since it has pleased God to deprive me of my elder son, I do not mean to abandon myself to despair, but to submit to the Divine Will and to assist and serve the King, my second son, in the feeble measure of my experience".^[76]

Charles IX

Regent

The Privy Council appointed the forty-one-year-old Catherine “governor of France” (gouvernante de France), with far-reaching powers. She set out her approach to the role in letter to her daughter Elisabeth:

My principal aim is to have the honour of God before my eyes in all things and to preserve my authority, not for myself, but for the conservation of this kingdom and for the good of all your brothers.^[77]

Charles IX of France, by François Clouet. The Venetian ambassador Giovanni Michiel described him as "an admirable child, with fine eyes, gracious movements, though he is not robust. He favours physical exercise that is too violent for his health, for he suffers from shortness of breath".^[78]

She kept the little king, who cried at his coronation, close to her, and slept in his chamber. She presided over the king’s council, decided policy, controlled state business and patronage. However, she never controlled the country as a whole, which was in chaos and on the brink of civil war. In many parts of France the rule of nobles held sway rather than that of the crown. The challenges Catherine faced were complex and in some ways difficult to understand.^[79] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Charles IX (June 27, 1550 – May 30, 1574) born Charles-Maximilien, was a member of the Valois Dynasty, King of France from 1560 until his death. ... » Diane de Poitiers by François Clouet (1571) at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC Elisabeth of Austria by François Clouet (1571) (Louvre) Wikimedia Commons has media related to: François Clouet François Clouet (died 22 December 1572), son of Jean Clouet, was a French Renaissance miniaturist...

Catherine summoned church leaders from both sides to solve their doctrinal differences. Despite her optimism, the resulting Colloquy of Poissy ended in failure on October 13 1561, dissolving itself without the queen's permission.^[80] Catherine's view of the religious issues at stake was naive, because she saw the divide only in political terms. In the words of historian R. J. Knecht, "she underestimated the strength of religious conviction, imagining that all would be well if only she could get the party leaders to agree".^[81] The duke of Guise accused her of "drinking at two wells" in her religious policies.^[82] In January 1562, Catherine issued the tolerant Edict of Saint-Germain in a further attempt to build bridges with the Protestants.^[83] On 1 March 1562, however, in an incident known as the Massacre at Vassy, François, duke of Guise, and his men set upon worshipping Huguenots in a barn at Vassy. They killed 74 of them and wounded 104.^[84] Guise, who called the massacre “a regrettable accident”, was cheered as a hero in the streets of Paris; while the Huguenots called for revenge.^[85] The massacre lit the fuse that sparked the French Wars of Religion. For the next thirty years, the country was to be in a state of either civil war or armed truce.^[86] Colloquy of Poissy, a conference held in 1561 with the object of effecting a reconciliation between the Catholics and Protestants of France. ... The Edict of Saint-Germain was an edict of toleration promulgated by the reigning Catherine de Medici in January 1562. ... is the 60th day of the year (61st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1562 was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... The Massacre at Vassy was the first of many religious wars fought in France. ... Francis, Duke of Guise Francis II, Prince of Joinville, Duke of Guise, Duke of Aumale (February 17, 1519 – February 24, 1563), called Balafré (the scarred), was a French soldier and politician. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... The French Wars of Religion were a series of conflicts fought between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants) from the middle of the sixteenth century to the Edict of Nantes in 1598, including civil infighting as well as military operations. ...

Within a month Prince Louis de Condé and Admiral Gaspard de Coligny had raised an army of 1,800. They formed an alliance with England and seized town after town in France.^[87] Catherine met Coligny, but he refused to back down. She therefore told him: "Since you rely on your forces, we will show you ours".^[88] The royal army quickly struck back and lay siege to Huguenot-held Rouen. Catherine visited the deathbed of Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre, who had been fatally wounded by an arquebus shot there.^[89] Catherine attended the field herself and when warned of the dangers laughed, “My courage is as great as yours”.^[90] Rouen was taken; but the Catholic triumph was short lived. On 18 February 1563, a spy called Poltrot de Méré fired an arquebus into the back of François, duke of Guise, at the siege of Orléans. This murder was to have a lasting effect on the stability of France.^[91] It triggered an aristocratic blood feud that was to complicate the French civil wars for years to come,^[92] in which the Guises sought revenge on Coligny, de Méré's employer.^[93] Catherine was delighted with the death of her ally. “If Monsieur de Guise had perished sooner,” she told the Venetian ambassador, “peace would have been achieved more quickly”.^[94] On 19 March 1563, the Edict of Amboise, also known as the Edict of Pacification, ended the war. To the disgust of many Catholics, the edict allowed Huguenot nobles free worship on their own estates and open worship in many towns. With Navarre and Guise dead, Condé and Montmorency held captive, and the Cardinal of Lorraine absent at the Council of Trent, Catherine found herself more powerful at court.^[95] She rallied both Huguenot and Catholic forces to retake Le Havre from the English. The harmony, however, was short-lived. Gaspard de Coligny Gaspard de Coligny (February 16, 1519 – August 24, 1572), Seigneur (Lord) de Châtillon held the office of Admiral of France and is best remembered as a Huguenot leader. ... Rouen (pronounced in French, sometimes also ) is the historical capital city of Normandy, in northwestern France on the River Seine, and currently the capital of the Haute-Normandie (Upper Normandy) région. ... Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme (22 April 1518 _ 17 November 1562). ... Japanese arquebus of the Edo era (teppō) Example of an arquebus The arquebus (sometimes spelled harquebus, harkbus[1] or hackbut; from Dutch haakbus, meaning hook gun[2]) was a primitive firearm used in the 15th to 17th centuries. ... is the 49th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events February 1 - Sarsa Dengel succeeds his father Menas as Emperor of Ethiopia February 18 - The Duke of Guise is assassinated while besieging Orléans March - Peace of Amboise. ... Jean de Poltrot (c. ... Blood Feud is the last episode of the second season of The Simpsons. ... is the 78th day of the year (79th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events February 1 - Sarsa Dengel succeeds his father Menas as Emperor of Ethiopia February 18 - The Duke of Guise is assassinated while besieging Orléans March - Peace of Amboise. ... The Edict of Amboise was signed on March 19, 1563 by Catherine de Medici. ... The Council of Trent is the Nineteenth Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. ...

Huguenots

Elisabeth de Valois, queen of Spain, by Sofonisba Anguissola, 1565. "How Spanish you have become, my daughter," Catherine told Elisabeth on meeting her in 1565.^[96]

On 17 August 1563, Charles IX was declared of age at the Parlement of Rouen. He was never able to rule on his own, however, and showed little interest in government.^[97] He suffered from shortness of breath, a sign of the tuberculosis that was to kill him. He was also prone to tantrums, which took the form of violent rages as he grew older. In 1570, during talks with Coligny’s brother-in-law, Charles de Téligny, for example, Charles lunged at the Huguenot with one hand on his dagger and had to be forcibly restrained.^[98] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (967x1400, 333 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Sofonisba Anguissola ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (967x1400, 333 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Sofonisba Anguissola ... Élisabeth de Valois, by Sofonisba Anguissola, 1565 Élisabeth de Valois (April 13, 1545 – October 3, 1568) was a daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici. ... Sofonisba Anguissola, Self-Portrait, 1554. ... is the 229th day of the year (230th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events February 1 - Sarsa Dengel succeeds his father Menas as Emperor of Ethiopia February 18 - The Duke of Guise is assassinated while besieging Orléans March - Peace of Amboise. ... This article is for the Ancien Régime institution. ... Charles de Téligny (c. ...

Catherine decided to launch a drive to enforce the edict of Amboise and revive loyalty to the crown. To this end, she set out with Charles and the court on a progress around France that lasted from January 1564 until 1 May 1565.^[99] Catherine held talks with the Protestant Queen Jeanne d’Albret of Navarre at Mâcon and Nérac. She also met her daughter Queen Elisabeth of Spain at Bayonne near the Spanish border. Philip II excused himself from the meeting. He sent the duke of Alba to tell her to scrap the edict of Amboise and turn to torture and executions instead.^[100] A Royal Progress was a tour of their kingdom by a monarch and his or her entourage. ... is the 121st day of the year (122nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events March 1 - the city of Rio de Janeiro is founded. ... Jeanne dAlbret Jeanne dAlbret (January 7, 1528 - June 9, 1572) was Queen of Navarre from 1555 to 1572, wife of Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vendome and mother of Henry IV of France. ... Mâcon is a commune of France, préfecture (capital) of the Saône-et-Loire département, in the Bourgogne région. ... Nérac is a commune of the Lot-et-Garonne département, in southwestern France. ... Bayonne (French: Bayonne, pronounced ; Gascon Occitan and Basque: Baiona) is a city and commune of southwest France at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers, in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques département, of which it is a sous-préfecture. ... Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba. ...

In 1567, Catherine placed the country on military alert. The duke of Alba was leading an imperial army north along France's eastern frontier to put down a revolt in the Netherlands.^[101] Catherine strengthened the borders and hired 6000 Swiss mercenaries, in case of attack. The Huguenots panicked, guessing that as a result of a secret agreement at Bayonne, these Catholic armies were about to turn on them, and so they took action of their own.^[102] On 27 September, in a swoop known as the Surprise of Meaux (surprise de Meaux), their forces tried to ambush the king.^[103] Taken unawares, the court fled to Paris in disarray.^[104] The Huguenot army then blockaded Paris, before moving off to the south. The seventy-four-year-old Constable Montmorency was killed in fighting outside Paris. The war was ended with the Peace of Longjumeau of March 22–23, 1568. It was followed by civil unrest and bloodshed in many parts of France.^[105] The Peace of Longjumeau (also known as the Treaty of Longjumeau or the Edict of Longjumeau) was signed on March 23, 1568 by King Charles IX of France and Catherine de Medici. ...

The Surprise of Meaux marked a turning point in Catherine’s policy towards the Huguenots. From that time, she abandoned compromise for a policy of repression,^[106] and her words assume a ruthless edge. She told the Venetian ambassador in June 1568 that all you could expect from Huguenots was deceit. She praised the duke of Alba’s reign of terror in the Netherlands, where Calvinists and rebels were put to death in their thousands.^[107] She told the Spanish envoy that Spain had made a “holy decision” in executing the rebel Flemish counts of Egmont and Hornes. She added that she hoped to take a similar decision soon in France.^[108] Catherine is reported to have rounded on de l’Hôpital at a king's council meeting. “It is you and your advice," she told him angrily, "that have brought us to this pass!”^[109] On 7 October, de l’Hôpital resigned as chancellor. Count of Egmont Statue of Lamoral, Count of Egmont, on market square in Zottegem Lamoral, Count of Egmont (November 18, 1522, La Hamaide near Ellezelles – June 5, 1568, Brussels) was a general and statesman in Flanders just before the start of the Eighty Years War. ... Count of Hoorn Philip de Montmorency (1524-June 5, 1568) was also known as Count of Horne. ...

The Huguenots retreated from the royal armies to the fortified stronghold of La Rochelle on the west coast. Jeanne d’Albret, queen of Navarre, and her fifteen-year-old son Henry of Bourbon, now openly joined the rebels.^[110] “We have come to the determination to die, all of us,” she wrote to Catherine, “rather than abandon our God, and our religion”.^[111] Jeanne's decision presented a dynastic threat to the Valois. Catherine called her “the most shameless woman in the world”.^[112] La Rochelle is a city and commune of western France, and a seaport on the Atlantic Ocean (population 78,000 in 2004). ... Jeanne (or Joan or Johanna) of Navarre (c. ... Henry IV of France, also Henry III of Navarre (13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), ruled as King of France from 1589 to 1610 and King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610. ...

At about this time, Catherine may have approved what has been called a “policy of elimination”.^[113] On 13 March 1569, Louis de Condé was defeated at the battle of Jarnac. After his surrender, the guardsmen of Henry, duke of Anjou shot him in the back, probably on Henry's orders.^[114] On 7 May, François d’Andelot, the brother of Admiral Coligny, died of a fever, probably poisoned.^[115] “We greatly rejoiced over the news of d'Andelot’s death," Catherine gloated. "...I hope God will mete out to the others the treatment they deserve”.^[116] The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 8 August 1570, signed because the army had run out of cash, conceded wider toleration to the Huguenots than ever before.^[117] The contemporary historian Étienne Pasquier observed of the treaty, "We have ended where we should have begun if we had been sensible; but in such matters we behave as we do in trials: we never come to an agreement until our purses have been emptied.^[118] is the 72nd day of the year (73rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events January 11 - First recorded lottery in England. ... The Battle of Jarnac was an encounter during the French Wars of Religion that occurred on March 13, 1569 between the Catholic forces of Marshal Gaspard de Tavannes and the Huguenots led by the Prince of Condé. The forces met at Jarnac on the right bank of the river Charente... Henry III of France (September 19, 1551 – August 2, 1589), also Henry of Poland (also called Henry of Valois, Henryk Walezy), born Alexandre-Édouard of France, was a member of the House of Valois. ... The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was signed August 5, 1570 at the royal Château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, ending the third of the French Wars of Religion. ... Étienne Pasquier (June 7, 1529 - September 1, 1615), French lawyer and man of letters, was born at Paris, on the 7th of June 1529 by his own account, according to others a year earlier. ...

Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, by François Clouet, 1570. She wrote to her son, Henry, in 1572: "All she [Catherine] does is mock me, and afterwards tells others exactly the opposite of what I have said...she denies everything, laughing in my face...she treats me so shamefully that the patience I manage to maintain surpasses that of Griselda".^[119]

Meanwhile, Catherine looked to further Valois interests by grand dynastic marriages. In 1570, Charles IX married Elisabeth of Austria, daughter of the emperor, Maximilian II. Catherine was also eager for a match between one of her two youngest sons and Elizabeth of England.^[120] After Catherine's daughter Elisabeth died in childbirth in 1568, she had touted her youngest daughter Marguerite as a bride for Philip II of Spain. Now she sought a marriage between Marguerite and Henry of Navarre, to unite Valois and Bourbon interests. Marguerite, however, was encouraging the advances of Henry of Guise, the son of the late duke of Guise. When Catherine and Charles found out, they became crazed. They called her from her bed and beat her up, pulling out handfuls of her hair and ripping her nightclothes.^[121] Guise fled the court and hurriedly announced his marriage to Catherine of Cleves. This affair may have been behind a split between Catherine and the Guises at this time.^[122] Image File history File links Jeannedalbret. ... Image File history File links Jeannedalbret. ... Jeanne dAlbret Jeanne dAlbret (January 7, 1528 - June 9, 1572) was Queen of Navarre from 1555 to 1572, wife of Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vendome and mother of Henry IV of France. ... » Diane de Poitiers by François Clouet (1571) at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC Elisabeth of Austria by François Clouet (1571) (Louvre) Wikimedia Commons has media related to: François Clouet François Clouet (died 22 December 1572), son of Jean Clouet, was a French Renaissance miniaturist... Portrait by François Clouet (1571) Elisabeth of Austria (June 5, 1554 – January 22, 1592), was born an Archduchess of Austria, and later became Queen of France. ... Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II. His Coat of Arms Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor of the Habsburg dynasty (July 31, 1527 – October 12, 1576) was king of Bohemia from 1562, king of Hungary from 1563 and emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1564 until his death. ... Henry I, Duke of Guise Coat of arms of the Duke of Guise Henry I, Prince of Joinville, Duke of Guise, Count of Eu (January 31, 1550 – December 23, 1588, Château de Blois), sometimes called Le Balafré, the scarred, was the eldest son of Francis, Duke of Guise and...

Catherine worked hard between 1571 and 1573 to bring Jeanne d’Albret to court. When she wrote saying that she wanted to see Jeanne's children and promised not to harm them, Jeanne replied: "Pardon me if, reading that, I want to laugh, because you want to relieve me of a fear that I've never had. I've never thought that, as they say, you eat little children".^[123] When Jeanne did come, a confrontation began.^[124] Catherine piled mental pressure on Jeanne,^[125] playing on her hopes for her beloved son. Jeanne finally agreed to a marriage between her son and Marguerite, so long as Henry could keep his Huguenot beliefs. Soon after Jeanne arrived in Paris to buy clothes for the wedding, she was taken ill and died, aged forty-four. Catherine was to be accused of murdering Jeanne with poisoned gloves.^[126] The wedding took place on 18 August 1572 at Notre-Dame, Paris. is the 230th day of the year (231st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... January 16 - Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk is tried for treason for his part in the Ridolfi plot to restore Catholicism in England. ... This article is about the Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris. ...

St. Bartholomew's Day massacre

Three days later, Admiral Coligny was walking back to his rooms from the Louvre when a shot rang out from a house and wounded him in the hand and arm. A smoking arquebus was discovered in a window, but the culprit had made his escape from the rear of the building on a waiting horse.^[127] Coligny was carried to his lodgings at the Hôtel de Béthisy, where the surgeon Ambroise Paré removed a bullet from his elbow and amputated one of his fingers with a pair of scissors. Catherine was said to have received the news without emotion. She visited Coligny and tearfully promised to punish the attacker. A fifty-strong armed guard was posted around the building, commanded by a Guise loyalist called Cosseins. Many historians have blamed Catherine for the attack on Coligny. Others point to the Guise family or a Spanish-papal plot to end Coligny's influence on the king.^[128] Whatever the truth, the bloodbath that followed was soon beyond the control of Catherine or any other leader.^[129] Historian Nicola Sutherland has called these events "among the most controversial of modern history".^[130] Ambroise Paré. Ambroise Paré (1510 – December 20, 1590) was a French surgeon, the official royal surgeon for kings Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, is considered by some as one of the Fathers of Surgery. ...