For much of history humans have used some form of cavalry for war. Cavalry tactics have evolved over time. Tactically, the main advantages of cavalry over infantry troops were greater mobility, bigger impact and a higher position. Soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat are commonly known as cavalry (from French cavalerie). ...

Many of the authors that served in various real-life wars (and survived) wrote stories that are at least somewhat based on their own experiences. ... This is a partial list of battles that have entries in Wikipedia. ... This is a list of civil wars. ... . ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This is a list of missions, operations, and projects. ... The 1453 Siege of Constantinople (painted 1499) A siege is a prolonged military assault and blockade on a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by force or attrition. ... This page contains a list of military raids, not including air raids, sorted by the date at which they started: 1259 Mongol raid into Lithuania 1565, August 26th Chaseabout Raid 1575, July 7th Raid of the Redeswire 1582, August 27th Raid of Ruthven 1667, June 6th Raid on the Medway... This page contains a list of military tactics: // Identification of objectives Concentration of effort Exploiting prevailing weather Exploiting night Maintenance of reserve forces Economy of force Force protection Force dispersal Military Camouflage Deception Perfidy False flag Electronic countermeasures Electronic counter-counter-measures Radio silence Fortification Fieldworks (entrenchments) Over Head Protection... See also list of military writers. ... This is a list of lists of wars, sorted by country, date, region, and type of conflict. ... This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. ... . ... There are a bewildering array of weapons, far more than would be useful in list form. ... This is a list of military writers, alphabetical by last name. ...

[edit] Predecessors

Chariot tactics have been the basics for warfare on horseback. The chariot's advantage of speed was outdone by the agility of riding on horseback. The ability of horsemen to pass more difficult terrain was also crucial to this change. Horsemen supplanted most light chariots. In Celtic warfare light chariots (essedum) prevailed among mounted troops for their ability to transport heavily armoured warriors and as mobile command platforms. // Relief of early wagons on the Standard of Ur, ca. ... War horses are horses specially trained for use in battle or individual combat (see also: Jousting). ... Hittite chariot (drawing of an Egyptian relief) Approximate historical map of the spread of the chariot, 2000 –500 BC. A chariot is a two-wheeled, horse-drawn vehicle. ... Hittite chariot (drawing of an Egyptian relief) Approximate historical map of the spread of the chariot, 2000 –500 BC. A chariot is a two-wheeled, horse-drawn vehicle. ... This article is about the European people. ...

[edit] Riding and fighting on horseback

A 13th-century Mongol saddle cover

At first it was not considered effective to use weapons on horseback, but rather to use the horse as transport. "Mounted infantry" would ride to battle, and then dismount to fight. For a long time, riders and charioteers worked alongside each other in the cavalry. Image File history File links Mongolsaddle. ... Image File history File links Mongolsaddle. ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ... For the torpedo-shaped underwater vehicle ridden by two frogmen, sometimes referred to as a chariot, see Human torpedo. ... Soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat are commonly known as cavalry (from French cavalerie). ...

The first recorded instance of mounted cavalry are the mounted archers of the Iranian tribes appearing in Assyrian records from the 9th century BC. War horses are horses specially trained for use in battle or individual combat (see also: Jousting). ... A horse archer (or horsed archer, mounted archer) is a cavalryman armed with a bow. ... Ancient Iranian peoples who settled Greater Iran in the 2nd millennium BC first appear in Assyrian records in the 9th century BC. They remain dominant throughout Classical Antiquity in Scythia and Persia. ... Assyrian may refer to: List of Assyrian settlements Anything from Assyria, an ancient empire in Mesopotamia Anything from Assyria (Roman province), a province of the Roman Empire Assyrian people, a present-day Middle Eastern ethnic group Several Christian denominations: Assyrian Church of the East Assyrian Church of the Easts... (10th century BC - 9th century BC - 8th century BC - other centuries) (900s BC - 890s BC - 880s BC - 870s BC - 860s BC - 850s BC - 840s BC - 830s BC - 820s BC - 810s BC - 800s BC - other decades) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events Kingdom of Kush (900 BC...

Mongolian troops had a Buryat longbow, the strongest known longbow^{[citation needed]}, for showering the enemy with arrows from a safe distance. The aim on horseback was better than in a jiggling chariot, after it was discovered to shoot while all hooves of the horse were in the air. Nevertheless, an archer in a chariot could shoot potentially stronger infantry bows. The Buryats, numbering approximately 436,000, are the largest ethnic minority group in Siberia and are mainly concentrated in their homeland, the Buryat Republic. ... Lemonwood, purpleheart and hickory longbow, 45 lbf draw force. ...

Javelins were employed as a powerful ranged weapon by many cavalries. They were easy to handle on horseback. Two to ten javelins would be carried, depending on their weight. Thrown javelins have less range than composite bows, but often prevailed in use nevertheless. Due to the mass of the weapon there was a greater armor-piercing ability and they thus caused fatal wounds more frequently. Usage is reported for both light and heavy cavalry, for example by Numidia and the Mongol's light cavalry or the heavy cataphracts, Celtic cavalry and the Mamluks during the Crusades. Celtic horsemen training was copied by the Roman equites. A significant element learned from the Celts was turning on horseback to throw javelins backwards, similar to the Parthian shot in archery. Javelin (Greek: ακόντιο, Latin: verutum, German: Wurfspeer, French: javelot, Spanish: jabalina, Italian: giavellotto) is the name of a pole weapon designed primarily for casting as a ranged weapon. ... An army unit consisting of mounted soldiers are commonly known as cavalry. ... Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in North Africa that later alternated between a Roman province and a Roman client state, and is no longer in existence today. ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ... A cataphract (from the Greek κατάφρακτος katafraktos, plural katafraktoi) was a form of heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Greeks and Latin-speaking peoples. ... This article is about the European people. ... A Mamluk cavalryman, drawn in 1810 A mamluk (Arabic: مملوك (singular), مماليك (plural), owned; also transliterated mameluk, mameluke, or mamluke) was a slave soldier who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. ... An equestrian (Latin eques, plural equites - also known as a vir egregius, lit. ... The Parthian shot (or Parthian shaft) was a tactic employed by ancient Persian horse archers. ...

Early saddles had no abdominal belt, nor were they high enough to charge safely with full force. The sarissae, lances and more often spears of cavalry were therefore used as thrusting and cutting weapon with a limited jolt. Stirrups and spurs improved the ability of riders to act fast and secure in melées and manoeuvres demanding agility of the horse. But their employment was not unquestioned. Agile movement of the rider on horseback was highly esteemed for light cavalry to shoot and fight in all directions. Contemporaries regarded stirrups and spurs as inhibiting for this purpose. Andalusian light cavalry refused to employ them till the 12th century, nor were they used by the Baltic turcopoles of the Teutonic order in the battle of Legnica(1241). The sarissa (or sarisa) was a 3 to 7 meter (13-21 feet) long double pointed pike used in the Macedonian phalanx. ... The term lance (Greek: λόγχη, Latin: lancea, German: Lanze, French: lance, Spanish: lanza, Italian: lancia) has become a catchall for a variety of different pole weapons based on the spear. ... Hunting spear and knife, from Mesa Verde National Park. ... Melée generally means hand-to-hand combat or mano-a-mano. ... A maneuver (also spelled manoeuvre) is a tactical or strategical move or action. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... http://www. ... During the Crusades, turcopoles or turcopoliers (Greek: sons of Turks) were mounted archers. ... Teutonic Knights, charging into battle. ... Combatants Mongol Empire Diversionary force Alliance Polish states Knights Templars Knights Hospitaller Teutonic Knights (disputed) Commanders Baidar and Kadan Henry II the Pious† Strength Estimated between 8,000-20,000 (max of two tumen)[1] Unknown, estimates have ranged from 2,000-40,000[1] Casualties Unknown, but supposedly heavier... Events April 5 - Mongols of Golden Horde under the command of Subotai defeat feudal Polish nobility, including Knights Templar, in the battle of Liegnitz April 27 - Mongols defeat Bela IV of Hungary in the battle of Sajo. ...

An outstanding example of combined arms and efficiency of cavalry forces were the medieval Mongols. Important for their horse archery was the use of stirrups for the archer to stand while shooting. This new position enabled them to use larger and stronger cavalry bows than the enemy. The Mongol military machine was largely the creation of one man- Genghis Khan. ...

[edit] Tactics of light and medium cavalry using bows

Armies of horse archers could cover enemy troops with arrows from a distance and never had to engage in close combat. Slower enemies without effective long range weapons often had no chance against them. It was in this manner that the cavalry of the Parthian Empire destroyed the troops of Crassus (53 BC) in the battle of Carrhae. During their raids in Central and Western Europe during the 9th and 10th centuries, Magyar mounted archers spread fear and terror in West Francia and East Francia; a prayer from Modena pleads de sagittis Hungarorum libera nos, domine ("O Lord, deliver us from the arrows of the Hungarians.")^[1] A horse archer (or horsed archer, mounted archer) is a cavalryman armed with a bow. ... Parthian Empire at its greatest extent, c60 BCE. The Parthian Empire was the dominating force on the Iranian plateau beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 190 BCE and 224 CE. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east and... Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives (c. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 58 BC 57 BC 56 BC 55 BC 54 BC 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50... Combatants Roman Republic Parthia Commanders Marcus Licinius Crassus †, Publius Crassus † Surena Strength 35,000 Roman legionnaires 4,000 cavalry 4,000 light infantry 9,000 cavalry archers 1,000 Cataphract Casualties 20,000 dead 10,000 captured 4,000 wounded Minimal The Battle of Carrhae was a decisive battle fought... Western Francia was the land under the control of Charles the Bald after the Treaty of Verdun of 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire of the Franks into an East, West, and Middle. ... Eastern Francia were the lands of Louis the German after the Treaty of Verdun of 843. ... Modena (Mòdna in Modenese dialect) is a city and a province on the south side of the Po valley, in Emilia-Romagna, Italy. ...

Another fairly popular tactical system was known as "shower shooting." The Sassanid Persians and the Mamluks were the chief proponents of the idea, although Muslim cavalry in India have also been known to use it in their battles. It involved a line of fairly well-armored cavalrymen (often on armored horses) standing in a massed static line or advancing in an ordered formation at the walk while loosing their arrows as quickly as possible by reducing their draw length. They also employ other time-saving measures such as holding several spare arrows in the drawing hand in order to shorten the interval between shots. ^[2] This technique compromises range, accuracy, and penetration in order to achieve the maximum volume of arrows. It has a reduced ability to penetrate protective equipment, but the high density makes it likely to hit unprotected spots. It was very effective against unsteady enemies who could easily be unnerved by the sight of a vast cloud of arrows raining down upon them; however, an enemy provided with good armor and discipline would often be able to hold out at least temporarily against the barrage. A case in point is Procopius's accounts of Belisarius's wars against the Sassanids ^[3] where he states how the Byzantine cavalry engaged in massed archery duels against their Persian counterparts. The Byzantines despised the Persians' shower-shooting and preferred to take the time to draw their bows fully and hit the Persians more precisely with their slow and heavy (armour breaking) arrows. Sassanid Empire at its greatest extent The Sassanid dynasty (also Sassanian) was the name given to the kings of Persia during the era of the second Persian Empire, from 224 until 651, when the last Sassanid shah, Yazdegerd III, lost a 14-year struggle to drive out the Umayyad Caliphate... A Mamluk cavalryman, drawn in 1810 A mamluk (Arabic: مملوك (singular), مماليك (plural), owned; also transliterated mameluk, mameluke, or mamluke) was a slave soldier who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. ... Procopius of Caesarea (in Greek Προκόπιος, c. ... Belisarius is thought to be the figure to the right of Emperor Justinian I in the mosaic in the Church of San Vitale Ravenna that celebrates the reconquest of Italy, performed by the Byzantine army under the skillful leadership of Belisarius himself. ...

The great weakness of mounted archers was their need of space and their light equipment (compared to contemporary heavy cavalry). If they were forced to fight in close combat against better armoured enemies, they usually lost. Furthermore, they were not suited for participating in sieges. Good cavalry troops needed lots of training and very good horses. Many peoples who engaged in this form of classical cavalry, such as the Hungarians and Mongols, practically lived on horseback. The name Mongols (Mongolian: Mongol) specifies one or several ethnic groups. ...

The battle of Dorylaeum (1097) during the First Crusade shows the advantages and disadvantages of mounted archers; the rider groups of the Seljuk sultan Kilij Arslan I were able to surround an army of Crusaders and shoot them from a distance. Suddenly reinforcements under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon arrived and the Seljuks themselves were encircled. They could escape no longer and were annihilated in close combat. The defeat of the Seljuks at Dorylaeum was so complete, that the Crusaders could practically cross Anatolia unchallenged. The Battle of Dorylaeum took place during the First Crusade on July 1, 1097, between the crusaders and the Seljuk Turks, near Dorylaeum in Anatolia. ... Events Edgar I deposes Donald III to become king of Scotland. ... Combatants Christendom, Catholicism West European Christians, Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Seljuks, Arabs and other Muslims The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of liberating the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslims, and freeing the Eastern Christians from Muslim... The Seljuk coat of arms was a double headed eagle The Seljuk Turks (also Seldjuk, Seldjuq, Seljuq; in modern Turkish Selçuklular; in Persian سلجوقيان Saljūqiyān; in Arabic سلجوق Saljūq, or السلاجقة al-Salājiqa) were a major branch of the Oghuz Turks and a dynasty that ruled parts of... Sultan (Arabic: سلطان) is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. ... Dawud Kılıj Arslan ibn Süleyman ibn Kutalmish (in Turkish Kılıç Arslan, قلج أرسلان Qïlïj Arslān d. ... Godfrey of Bouillon, from a tapestry painted in 1420 Godfrey of Bouillon (c. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

[edit] Tactics of heavy cavalry using lances

Battle of Higueruela (1431) between John II of Castile and Muhammed IX, Nasrid Sultan of Granada

Medieval European knights attacked in several different ways, implementing shock tactics if possible, but always in formations of several knights, not individually. For defense and mêlée a formation of horsemen was as tight as possible next to each other in a line. This preventing their enemy from charging, and also from surrounding them individually. With their heavy and armoured chargers knights trampled through the enemy infantry. The most devastating charging method was to ride in a looser formation fast into attack. This attack was often protected by simultaneous or shortly preceding ranged attacks of archers or crossbowmen. The attack began from a distance of about 350 metres and took about 15-20 seconds to cross the contemporary long range weapon's effective distance. A most important element, and one not easily mastered, was to stay in one line with fixed spaces while accelerating and having the maximum speed at impact. Often knights would come in several waves, with the first being the best equipped and armored. The lance as primary weapon pierced the enemy. If an enemy soldier was hit in full gallop by a knight's lance embedded under the armpit, he was thrown backwards with such a momentum that he knocked over several of his compatriots. The heavy lances were dropped after the attack and the battle was continued with secondary weapons (sword, axe, mace or likewise). Then the troops of a scara regrouped into the tighter formation mentioned above. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2842x2048, 1600 KB) The Battle of Higueruela, 1 July, 1431 depicted by Fabrizio Castello, Orazio Cambiaso and Lazzaro Tavarone in the Gallery of Battles at the Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2842x2048, 1600 KB) The Battle of Higueruela, 1 July, 1431 depicted by Fabrizio Castello, Orazio Cambiaso and Lazzaro Tavarone in the Gallery of Battles at the Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial. ... The Battle of Higueruela as depicted in the Gallery of Battles. ... Events February 21 - The trial of Joan of Arc March 3 - Eugenius IV becomes Pope May 30 - In Rouen, France, 19-year old Joan of Arc is burned at the stake. ... Juan II (March 6, 1405 – July 20, 1454) was King of Castile from 1406 to 1454. ... Sword of Boabdil Boabdil (a corruption of the name Abu Abdullah, or, in full, Abu abd Allah Muhammad XII, Arabic: ‎) (1460?–1527) was the last Moorish king of Granada (of the Nasrid dynasty). ... Nasrid is the name referring to the royal dynasty that ruled the kingdom of Granada in southern Spain from the mid 13th century to the 15th century, which is considered to be one of the longest Islamic dynasties in the history of Islamic Spain. ... The silver Anglia knight, commissioned as a trophy in 1850, intended to represent the Black Prince. ... Shock tactics, shock tactic or Shock attack is the name of an offensive maneuver in battle in which the attacking forces engage into close combat with extreme action and massive force. ... Mêlée generally refers to disorganized hand-to-hand combat involving a group of fighters. ... Battle of WoÅ‚odarka Polish infantry charging enemy positions during the Polish Defensive War A charge is a maneuver in battle in which soldiers advance towards their enemy at their best speed to engage in close combat. ... A bow is an ancient weapon that shoots arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow. ... 15th century French soldier wearing a hauberk, armed with a crossbow/arbalest and resting on a pavise. ... Kinematic diagram of SCARA configuration The SCARA acronym stands for Selective Compliant Assembly Robot Arm or Selective Compliant Articulated Robot Arm. ...

The Persians deployed their cataphracts in mixed formations with light archers in the rear ranks, supporting the charge with arrows. ^[4]. Mongolian heavy cavalry improved upon the charging effect by attaching hooks to their lances to take enemies down when bypassing. Usually they had a two ranks deep formation of heavy cavalry charging the enemy. They were supported by three ranks of light cavalry, delivering rapid closeup shots with heavy armor-breaking arrows. Chinese cavalry and Samurai often used polearms with better slicing ability. Both handled their primary weapons in the two-handed Asian style. This method of charging attack was very effective, but it depended very much on favorable ground of the chosen battlefield. A cataphract (from the Greek κατάφρακτος katafraktos, plural katafraktoi) was a form of heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Greeks and Latin-speaking peoples. ... The Mongol military machine was largely the creation of one man- Genghis Khan. ... Japanese samurai in armour, 1860s. ...

Modern historians agree that the major portion of knights during many Medieval battles fought on foot. Only with ideal conditions of terrain and support via long range combatants would attacks be carried out on horseback. If the enemy infantry was equipped with polearms and fought in tight formations it was not possible to charge without heavy losses. A fairly common solution to this was for the men-at-arms to dismount and assault the enemy on foot, such as the way Scottish knights dismounted to stiffen the infantry schiltron or the English combination of longbowmen with dismounted men-at-arms in the Hundred Years' War. Another possibility was to bluff an attack, but turn around before impact. This tempted many infantrymen to go on chase, leaving their formation. The heavy cavalry then turned around again in this new situation and rode down the scattered infantry. Such a tactic was deployed in the battle of Hastings (1066). This article is becoming very long. ... A schiltron or schiltrom is a group of men carrying pikes and polearms. ... Lemonwood, purpleheart and hickory longbow, 45 lbf draw force. ... Combatants France Castile Scotland Genoa Majorca Bohemia Crown of Aragon Brittany England Burgundy Brittany Portugal Navarre Flanders Hainault Aquitaine Luxembourg Holy Roman Empire The Hundred Years War was a conflict between France and England, lasting 116 years from 1337 to 1453. ... Military tactics (Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army) are the collective name for methods for engaging and defeating an enemy in battle. ... Combatants Normans supported by: Bretons, Aquitanians, Flemings Anglo-Saxons Commanders William of Normandy, Odo of Bayeux Harold Godwinson † Strength 7,000-8,000 7,000-8,000 Casualties Unknown, thought to be around 2,000 killed and wounded Unknown, but significantly more than the Normans The Battle of Hastings was... Events January 6 - Harold II is crowned September 20 - Battle of Fulford September 25 - Battle of Stamford Bridge September 29 - William of Normandy lands in England at Pevensey. ...

A further improvement of fighting ability was the use of well-armed infantry reserves during knightly battles on horseback. After some time the battle split in several small groups with space in between and both sides became exhausted. Then an infantry rush could concentrate on selected targets and rout the enemy. Infantry also helped knights to remount in battle and saved the wounded.

[edit] Tactics of heavy cavalry using ranged weapons

The death of King Gustavus II Adolphus on 16 November 1632 at the Battle of Lützen

An Ottoman Mamluk, from 1810

Attempts at integrating ranged weapons and heavy cavalry were for example made by the Greeks and Persians equipping their heavier cavalry with javelins and bows. Prior to charging, the enemy would be weakened by repeated missile attacks from combined light cavalry and heavy cavalry (cataphracts)^[5]. This tactical system was adopted by the Romans, as attested by the presence of an "equites sagittarii clibanarii" unit in the Notitia Dignitatum ^[6], and passed down into the tactical repertoire of their Byzantine successors^[7]. ^[8] Carl Wahlboms (1810-1858) painting of the Battle of Lützen. ... Carl Wahlboms (1810-1858) painting of the Battle of Lützen. ... The Battle of Lützen was one of the most decisive battles of the Thirty Years War. ... Image File history File links Mamluke. ... Image File history File links Mamluke. ... Motto: دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) Anthem: Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1680, see: list of territories Capital Söğüt (1299-1326) Bursa (1326-1365) Edirne (1365-1453) Constantinople (Istanbul) (1453-1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy Sultans  - 1281–1326 Osman I  - 1918–1922 Mehmed VI... A Mamluk cavalryman, drawn in 1810 A mamluk (Arabic: مملوك (singular), مماليك (plural), owned; also transliterated mameluk, mameluke, or mamluke) was a slave soldier who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. ... 1810 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... For information about all peoples of Iran, see Demographics of Iran; for Central Asian Persians, see Tajiks. ...

As mentioned earlier, heavy cavalry with lances was always supported by ranged combat units. They could be heavily armoured archers, like cataphracts or clibanarii with bows, advancing together with the charging cavalry. This bow-armed cavalry would loose their arrows as they advanced in the early stages of their charge with the intention of weakening and demoralizing the enemy formation prior to the moment of shock, possibly in shower shooting style. While the enemy was usually capable of countering with equal measures of ranged combat, the horse archers often wore protective equipment, so the changover from light to heavy cavalry is not always clear and it seems in cases they formed the second charging rank. A similar tactic of heavy skirmishers developed in Late Medieval Europe, employing the easier to handle crossbow. Frontal assaults of heavy cavalry became considered ineffective against formations of spearmen or pikemen combined with crossbowmen or longbow archers. Most of the cavalry men wore armor that could be penetrated by contemporary crossbows at close ranges, although this didn't necessarily result in a fatal injury. It resulted in the development of new cavalry tactics whereby knights and mounted mercenaries deployed in deep triangular wedges, with the most heavily armored men (especially those able to afford armored horses) being deployed in the front ranks. To increase its effect, part of the formation would carry small, powerful all-metal crossbows of their own. These mounted crossbowmen could sally out from the rear ranks to provide a skirmish screen or a preliminary barrage of bolts. A cataphract (from the Greek κατάφρακτος katafraktos, plural katafraktoi) was a form of heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Greeks and Latin-speaking peoples. ... Hunting spear and knife, from Mesa Verde National Park. ... A modern recreation of a mid-17th century company of pikemen. ... 15th century French soldier wearing a hauberk, armed with a crossbow/arbalest and resting on a pavise. ... A mercenary, is a person who takes part in an armed conflict and is motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain and, in fact, is promised, by or on behalf of a Party to the conflict, material compensation substantially in excess of that...

Later on, the tactical landscape would feature harquebusiers or musketeers and pikemen deployed in combined-arms formations pitted against cavalry firing pistols or carbines. One of the cavalry tactics employed in such encounters was the caracole, developed in the mid-16th century in an attempt to integrate gunpowder weapons into cavalry tactics. Equipped with one or two wheellock pistols, cavalrymen would advance on their target at less than a gallop. As each rank came into range, the soldiers would turn away, discharge their pistols at the target, retire to reload, and then repeat the manoeuvre. In early times they had an advantage in firepower, but infantry firepower increased. With the invention of the bayonet, the pike screen against charges could also be turned into firing soldiers. The tactic was accompanied by the increasing popularity of the German Reiter in Europan armies from about 1540 or similar equipped, but usually lighter armoured Hakkapeliitta. Their main weapons were two or more pistols and a sword; first most wore three-quarters armor, though as time passed this was reduced to a helmet and a cuirass over a buff leather coat; sometimes they also carried a long cavalry firearm known as an arquebus or a carbine (although this type of horsemen soon became regarded as a separate class of cavalry - the arquebusier or in Britain harquebusier). Japanese arquebus of the Edo era (teppo) The arquebus (sometimes spelled harquebus, harkbus[1] or hackbut; possibly related to German Hakenbuechse or Dutch Haakbus) was a primitive firearm used in the 15th to 17th centuries. ... Muskets and bayonets aboard the frigate Grand Turk. ... A carbine is a firearm similar to, but generally shorter and less powerful than, a rifle or musket of a given period. ... The caracole or caracol (from the Spanish caracol - spiral) consists of a manoeuvre on horseback in dressage and, previously, in military tactics. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Blackpowder. ... Soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat are commonly known as cavalry (from French cavalerie). ... Wheellock, Wheel-Lock or Wheel lock, is a mechanism for firing a firearm. ... A Browning 9 millimeter Hi-Power Ordnance pistol of the French Navy, 19th century, using a Percussion cap mechanism Derringers were small and easily hidden. ... Horse gaits are the different ways in which a horse can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training by humans. ... The US Marine Corps OKC-3S Bayonet A bayonet (from French baïonnette) is a knife- or dagger-shaped weapon designed to fit on or over the muzzle of a rifle barrel or similar weapon. ... Reiters (German: Reiter, or horserider) were a type of cavalry, which appeared in the armies of Western Europe in the 16th century, in place of the outmoded lance-armed knights, along with the cuirassiers and dragoons. ... Hakkapeliitta (also known as Hackapelit, Hackapelite, Haccapelit or Haccapelite), was the name given in Germany to the Finnish horsemen of King Gustav II Adolph of Sweden during the Thirty Years War. ...

Modern historians regard the caracole as a tactical system that ultimately proved ineffective. It sacrificed the cavalry advantages of speed and mobility, while also leaving mounted soldiers at a disadvantage to massed infantry equipped with heavier and longer-ranged weapons. The caracole gave way to close artillery support (see Horse artillery) deployed to break up the infantry formations and force the foot soldiers to scatter so that the cavalry would regain their advantage in close-quarters combat. Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme in World War I. Infantry are soldiers who fight primarily on foot with small arms in organized military units, though they may be transported to the battlefield by horses, ships, automobiles, skis, or other means. ... Artillery with Gabion fortification Cannons on display at Fort Point Continental Artillery crew from the American Revolution Firing of an 18-pound gun, Louis-Philippe Crepin, (1772 – 1851) A forge-welded Iron Cannon in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. ... Horse Artillery were light, fast moving and fast firing artillery units which provided fire support to the cavalry elements of armies in the 18th and 19th centuries. ...

Some historians associate the demise of the caracole with the name of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594-1632). Certainly he regarded the technique as fairly inefficient and forbade the cavalry regiments in Swedish employ from using it. Instead, he ordered both the fast Hakkapeliitta and the mercenary German reiters to engage the enemy with a powerful charge. They would attack at galloping speed, discharge the first pistol at 20 paces, the second at five paces, and then draw the sword. The horse itself was used like another weapon, as its charge was used to run down enemy infantry. It should be noted that prior to this charge mobile artillery was used to reduce the compact infantry formation. However, there is evidence that the caracole was already falling out of use by 1620, before Gustavus Adolphus reached Poland and Germany. Gustav II Adolf King of Sweden Gustav II Adolf (also known as Gustaf Adolf the Great (Swedish Gustav Adolf den store, Latin Gustavus Adolphus Magnus), or Gustavus II Adolphus) (December 9, 1594 – November 6, 1632 O.S.), widely known by the Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus and referred to by Protestants...

[edit] Infantry countertactics

Against light cavalry with bows and javelins:

It was impossible for infantry to engage light cavalry with bows or javelins in close combat, as long as the chosen ground didn't put a major hindrace to the cavalry movement. The only resort for engagement were missile weapons in ranged combat. In this case both cavalry and infantry fought only in a missile exchange. While the infantry can be considered static in comparison to the cavalry, their own protection, the damage their missiles would cause and the hit rate were important.

For example in the prelude of the battle of Mohi, crossbowarchers, protected by pavises, sniped at the Mongol light cavalry, resulting in a tactical defeat of this Mongol unit.^[9] Combatants Kingdom of Hungary Golden Horde (Mongol Empire) Commanders King Béla IV , Batu Khan, Subotai Strength approximately 15,000 around 20,000-30,000 (mostly cavalry) Casualties 10,000 lost unknown The Battle of Mohi, or Battle of the Sajó River, (on April 11, 1241) was the main battle... 15th century French soldier wearing a hauberk, armed with a crossbow/arbalest and resting on a pavise. ... Pavise shield (with Bartolomeo Vivarinis St. ...

The defence of such ranged combat units was important, for cavalry could always switch roles and engage the ranged combat infantry (often lightly armored skirmishers) in close combat.

Against heavy cavalry with lances the following tactics were often effective:

Missile weapons: The longbow and the crossbow were able to threaten knights. Although the heavy noble cavalry of Middle Ages often fought on foot or at least avoided futile frontal attacks, it happened several times that knightly armies led charges according to their warrior ideal. The results were often devastating. At Crécy (1346) and Poitiers(1356), the French knights suffered heavy casualties against the Welsh/English longbowmen. Important for military archery was the ability to keep several arrows in the air. Thus, while a cavalry charge followed a strict pattern of acceleration (400 metres in 2 minutes, gallop just at the last 150 metres) from a distance beyond effective weapon range, arrows could be launched to hail down on the advancing enemy as they came within effective range. Lemonwood, purpleheart and hickory longbow, 45 lbf draw force. ... 15th century French soldier wearing a hauberk, armed with a crossbow/arbalest and resting on a pavise. ... Middle age is that stage in life when physical decline has started but a person cannot be called old. ... Combatants Kingdom of England, Allied knights from Germany and Denmark France, Genoese Mercenaries, the Kingdoms of Navarre, Bohemia and the Balearic Islands Commanders Edward III of England Edward, the Black Prince Philip VI of France Strength about 12,000 30,000 to 40,000 Casualties 150-1,000 killed and... // Events Serbian Empire was proclaimed in Skopje by Dusan Silni, occupying much of the South-Eastern Europe Foundation of the University of Valladolid Foundation of Pembroke College, University of Cambridge August 26 Battle of Crecy after which Edward the Black Prince honored the bravery of John I, Count of Luxemburg... Combatants Kingdom of England Gascony France Commanders Edward, the Black Prince Captal de Buch John II of France Strength 9,000 12,000 Casualties Minimal 2,500 killed or wounded The Battle of Poitiers was fought between the Kingdom of England and France on September 19, 1356, resulting in the... Events January 20 - Edward Balliol surrenders title as King of Scotland to Edward III of England April 16 — the King of the Serbian Kingdom of RaÅ¡ka Stefan DuÅ¡an is proclaimed Tsar (Emperor) of all Serbs, Arbanasses and Greeks in Skopje by the Serbian Orthodox Christian Patriarch of a... Self-yew English longbow, 6 ft 6 in long, 105 lbf draw force. ...

Polearms: The long spears (pikes) of Scots and Swiss were an excellent defensive weapon against cavalry. The warriors stood in tight formations like an ancient phalanx, the end of their pikes embedded in the ground, presenting a massive spiked wall. In battle against the Scots, the English knights proved to be as narrow-minded as their French counterparts, employing the classic cavalry charge despite the new challenge of the Scottish pike. In the battles of Stirling Bridge (1297) and Bannockburn (1314) they were defeated by the Scots. While the English imitated this tactic successfully against the French, the Swiss perfected it. Despite longer lances for the knights, this formation was now almost impenetrable. Pikemen with polearms remained an important part of armies throughout the 30 Years War. Later tactics used against this formation included caracole maneuvers with ranged weapons. ... A modern recreation of a mid-17th century company of pikemen. ... Wiktionary has a definition of: Scot A Scot is a person from Scotland. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Combatants Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of England Commanders Andrew Moray William Wallace Surrey Cressingham† Strength 16000 infantry and 800 cavalry 50000 infantry and 3000 cavalry Casualties  ? 6,000 killed The Battle of Stirling Bridge was a battle of the First War of Scottish Independence. ... Events 8 January - Monaco gains independence. ... Combatants Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of England Commanders Robert Bruce Edward II Strength about 6,500 20,000 Casualties unknown but light about 9000 The Battle of Bannockburn (Blàr Allt a Bhonnaich in Gaelic) (June 23–June 24, 1314) was a significant Scottish victory in the Wars of Scottish... Events June 24 - Battle of Bannockburn. ... The victory of Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) The Thirty Years War was a conflict fought between the years 1618 and 1648, principally in the central European territory of the Holy Roman Empire, but also involving most of the major continental powers. ... The caracole or caracol (from the Spanish caracol - spiral) consists of a manoeuvre on horseback in dressage and, previously, in military tactics. ...

Using advantages of the terrain: Lancers needed hard, plain ground and enough space for attack. A clever enemy avoided battle on open ground and preferred marshy, mountainous or arboreous grounds for battle. The Scots did this at Bannockburn and Stirling, and in nearly all their guerilla fighting against the English, as did the Welsh to a great extent. The Swiss defeated the Austrian knights at the battle of Morgarten(1315) by attacking the knightly army in a narrow place bettween an acclivity and a swamp. The peasants of Dithmarschen faced in 1500, at Hemmingstedt, the army of the Danish king. They opened the dykes and flooded the country. If the terrain was not well suited for a cavalry attack, English knights often fought on foot and used their lances as pikes. Knights fighting on foot were called men-at-arms in England. A Lancer was a cavalry soldier who fought with a lance. ... On November 15, 1315, the Swiss Confederation thoroughly defeated the soldiers of Duke Leopold I of Austria in an ambush near the Morgarten pass. ... Events August 13 - Louis X of France marries Clemence dAnjou. ... Dithmarschen is a district in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. ... 1500 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Battle of Hemmingstedt took place on February 17th 1500 near the village of Hemmingstedt in present-day Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. ... For the novel by Evelyn Waugh, see Sword of Honour. ...

Guerilla warfare: an enemy who could suddenly strike and retreat was a serious problem for the heavy cavalry. Therefore it was important to have also always enough light cavalry. Guerrilla (also called a partisan) is a term borrowed from Spanish (from guerra meaning war) used to describe small combat groups. ...

Advantage of Terrain: Cavalry relies on certain types of terrain to be most effective, preferably on flat, open ground with short distance between its target. By retreating to mountain areas, infantry can either evade the cavalry completely, or if the cavalry pursues, can wipe them out while they cannot use their advantages of speed and overwhelming force.

[edit] New tactics of light cavalry and mounted infantry

With increasing firepower and no sufficient protection, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was slowly reduced. Light cavalry with fireams could return fire, but the aim was not as good as for infantry. So most important for cavalry was the ability to quickly attack enemy cavalry or scattered infantry with lances and sabres (cold steel). Speed reduced the time vulnerable to gunfire, but still closed formations became impossible to take. This tactic was a striking surprise of Mongolian light cavalry in the battle of the Kalka River. The alternative was to use them as dragoons, reaching their positions quickly, dismounting and firefighting like infantry. Such a way of fighting had started in Europe at least in the 13th century with mounted longbow and crossbow archers, but was also employed by the Mongols with their Buryatian longbows. // Combatants Mongols Kievan Rus, Cumans Commanders Subutai Mstislav the Bold Strength 40,000 Over 80,000 Casualties MInimal Heavy Battle of the Kalka River (May 31, 1223) was the first military engagement between the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan and the Rus warriors. ... French dragoon, 1745. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... Lemonwood, purpleheart and hickory longbow, 45 lbf draw force. ... 15th century French soldier wearing a hauberk, armed with a crossbow/arbalest and resting on a pavise. ...

[edit] War elephants

See the main article at war elephant. Charging elephants caused terror and panic, and their thick hides made them difficult to injure or kill. ...

Elephant cavalry first appeared three-thousand years ago, simultaneously in India's Vedic Civilization and in China.^[10] Female Asian elephants were used, sometimes in small groups, sometimes in vast regiments of thousands of animals in the 13th century^[11], primarily to produce a tactical "shock and awe" effect in the field. In addition, the large animals provided large elevated platforms from which archers could rain down arrows on the enemy, and from which generals could survey the battle. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Binomial name Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 Asian Elephant range The Asian or Asiatic Elephant (Elephas maximus), sometimes known by the name of its nominate subspecies (the Indian Elephant), is one of the three living species of elephant, and the only living species of the genus Elephas. ... A bow is an ancient weapon that shoots arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow. ...

The psychological effect of war elephants was often its main tactical use^[12]. After encountering elephant cavalry in the Battle of the Hydaspes River,