The Census of Quirinius refers to a historical enrollment of the Roman Provinces of Syria and Iudaea for the purpose of taxation taken during the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus when Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was appointed governor of Syria, after the banishment of Herod Archelaus in 6 AD, which had, as consequence, that Iudaea Province (the conglomeration of Samaria, Judea proper, and Idumea) came under direct Roman administration.^[1] An account of the census was given by the first century historian Josephus,^[2] who associated it with the beginning of the Zealot movement. Map of the Roman Empire, with the provinces, after 120. ... Iudaea Province in the 1st century Iudaea (Hebrew: יהודה, Standard Yehuda Tiberian , praise God; Greek: Ιουδαία; Latin: Iudaea) was a Roman province that extended over the region of Judea proper, later Palestine. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law This article discusses the nature of the imperial dignity, and its dynastic development throughout the history of the Empire. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... The Virgin and St Joseph register for the census before Governor Quirinius. ... Coin of Herod Archelaus Herod Archelaus (23 BC – c. ... Iudaea Province in the 1st century Iudaea (Hebrew: יהודה, Standard Yehuda Tiberian , praise God; Greek: Ιουδαία; Latin: Iudaea) was a Roman province that extended over the region of Judea proper, later Palestine. ... A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whistons translation of his works Josephus (37 – sometime after 100 CE),[1] who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus,[2] was a 1st-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Zealotry. ...

The Gospel of Luke dates the birth of Jesus during this census, while the Gospel of Matthew places the birth at least a decade earlier. Bible scholars have traditionally attempted to reconcile these accounts; most modern scholars regard this as an error by the author of the Gospel.^[3] The Gospel of Luke (literally, according to Luke; Greek, Κατά Λουκαν, Kata Loukan) is a synoptic Gospel, and the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... The Gospel of Matthew (literally, according to Matthew; Greek, Κατά Μαθθαίον or Κατά Ματθαίον, Kata Maththaion or Kata Matthaion) is a synoptic gospel in the New Testament, one of four canonical gospels. ...

The Virgin and St. Joseph register for the census before Governor Quirinius. Byzantine mosaic c. 1315.

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The Census

The Jewish historian Josephus recorded that in 6-7 A.D.,^[4] after the exile of Herod Archelaus (successor to Herod the Great in Iudaea), Quirinius (in Greek, Cyrenius), a Roman senator, became governor (Legatus) of Syria, while an equestrian assistant named Coponius was assigned as the first governor (Prefect) of the newly-created Iudaea Province. These governors were assigned to conduct a tax census for the Emperor in Syria and Iudaea.^[5] A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whistons translation of his works Josephus (37 – sometime after 100 CE),[1] who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus,[2] was a 1st-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and... Coin of Herod Archelaus Herod Archelaus (23 BC – c. ... Herod the Great. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was equivalent to a modern general officer in the Roman army. ... An equestrian (Latin eques, plural equites - also known as a vir egregius, lit. ... Coponius was first procurator of Judea, about 6 CE. He was, like the procurators who succeeded him, of knightly rank, and had the power of life and death[1]. During his administration occurred the revolt of Judas the Galilean [2], the cause of which was not so much the personality... A prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: make in front, i. ... Iudaea Province in the 1st century Iudaea (Hebrew: יהודה, Standard Yehuda Tiberian , praise God; Greek: Ιουδαία; Latin: Iudaea) was a Roman province that extended over the region of Judea proper, later Palestine. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law This article discusses the nature of the imperial dignity, and its dynastic development throughout the history of the Empire. ...

Now Cyrenius, a Roman senator, and one who had gone through other magistracies, and had passed through them till he had been consul, and one who, on other accounts, was of great dignity, came at this time into Syria, with a few others, being sent by Caesar to be a judge of that nation, and to take an account of their substance. Coponius also, a man of the equestrian order, was sent together with him, to have the supreme power over the Jews. Moreover, Cyrenius came himself into Judea, which was now added to the province of Syria, to take an account of their substance, and to dispose of Archelaus's money;

The census in Iudaea led to an uprising under Judas of Galilee. Probably the imposition of taxation associated with it was the main cause, although religious objections to numbering the people of Israel may well have played a part; the biblical account of the census carried out by King David implies that it was a sinful act.^[6] Josephus did not imply that they had much immediate success, but he regarded their actions as the beginning of a Zealot movement that encouraged armed resistance to the Roman empire, culminating eventually in the First Jewish-Roman War.^[7] The leaders of the uprising claimed that the census and taxation associated with it were tantamount to slavery. It is unclear as to whether this was based on the fact that for the first time in many years they were to pay taxes to a foreign power, or simply that they feared the tax burden would be too high; it has been argued that the combination of Roman and Jewish religious taxes was no higher a burden than in the neighbouring provinces. In any case, it was not unusual for the census process to provoke resistance; in 10 AD, a provincial census caused an uprising in Pannonia, and the revolt of Arminius may have been caused by Varus’ decision to start taxing the region in 9 AD, even though the area had been under Roman rules since 12 AD.^[8] In AD 36, the tribe of the Clitae, subjects of Archelaus of Cappadocia, objected to attempts by him to impose a Roman-type census on them for the purpose of paying tribute, and the ensuing revolt had to be put down by a force sent by the governor of Syria.^[9] Judas of Galilee or Judas of Gamala led a violent resistance to a census imposed for Roman tax purposes by Quirinius in Iudaea Province around 6 CE. The revolt was crushed brutally by the Romans. ... This page is about the Biblical king David. ... “Zealot” redirects here. ... Combatants Roman Empire Jews of Iudaea Province Commanders Vespasian, Titus Simon Bar-Giora, Yohanan mi-Gush Halav (John of Gischala), Eleazar ben Simon Strength 70,000? 1,100,000? Casualties Unknown 1,100,000? (majority Jewish civilian casualties) Jewish-Roman wars First War – Kitos War – Bar Kokhba revolt The first... For other uses, see Pannonia (disambiguation). ... The Hermannsdenkmal Arminius (also Armin, 18 BC/17 BC - 21 AD) was a chieftain of the Cherusci who defeated a Roman army in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. ... The Defeated Varus (2003), a sculpture by Wilfried Koch in Haltern am See, Germany. ... For other uses, see Cappadocia (disambiguation). ...

Augustus is known to have taken a census of Roman citizens at least three times, in 28 B.C., 8 B.C., and A.D. 14.^[10] There is also evidence that censuses were taken at regular intervals during his reign in the provinces of Egypt and Sicily, important because of their wealthy estates and supply of grain.^[11] In the provinces, the main goals of a census of non-citizens were taxation and military service.^[12] The earliest such provincial census was taken in Gaul in 27 BC; during the reign of Augustus, the imposition of the census provoked disturbances and resistance.^[13]

The census in the New Testament

The Gospel of Luke also mentions Quirinius in the infancy narrative of Jesus: The Gospel of Luke (literally, according to Luke; Greek, Κατά Λουκαν, Kata Loukan) is a synoptic Gospel, and the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament. ...

In those days a decree went out from Emperor Augustus that all the world should be registered. This was the first registration and was taken while Quirinius was governor of Syria. All went to their own towns to be registered. Joseph also went from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea, to the city of David called Bethlehem, because he was descended from the house and family of David. He went to be registered with Mary, to whom he was engaged and who was expecting a child. (Luke 2:1-7—NRSV)

This passage has long been considered problematic by Biblical scholars, since it appears to place the birth of Jesus around the time of the census in 6 A.D, whereas the Gospel of Matthew indicates a birth during or just after the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 B.C., ten years earlier.^[14] In addition, no other sources mention a world-wide (or Roman-wide) census which would cover the population as a whole; those of Augustus covered Roman citizens only;^[15] and although people could be asked to return to their homes to be registered,^[16] it was not the practice in Roman censuses to require people to return to their ancestral homes.^[17] Categories: Stub | 1989 books | Bible versions and translations ... The Gospel of Matthew (literally, according to Matthew; Greek, Κατά Μαθθαίον or Κατά Ματθαίον, Kata Maththaion or Kata Matthaion) is a synoptic gospel in the New Testament, one of four canonical gospels. ...

Most modern scholars explain the disparity as an error on the part of the author of the Gospel, concluding that he created a literary fiction, placing the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem in order to present the birth as fulfilment of prophecy, and that the author was unaware of, or indifferent to,^[18] the chronological difficulty. Many also suggest that the Gospel of Matthew account is invented.^[19] However, it has been noted that Luke makes no mention of any Messianic prophecies in relation to the census or Bethlehem ^[20][21].

Others, especially in the past when Biblical inerrancy was more or less taken for granted by scholars, have attempted to reconcile the accounts. For the most part this has involved the suggestion of an earlier census carried out, or begun, during the reign of King Herod. It may have been in response to this problem that Tertullian, writing around 200 AD, stated that the census had been taken by Gaius Sentius Saturninus (legate of Syria, 9-6 BC) rather than Quirinius.^[22] Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Biblical... Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. ...

Sixteenth to eighteenth centuries

In The Credibility of the Gospel History (1727), Nathaniel Lardner listed and assessed the arguments which had been advanced up to that point: Nathaniel Lardner (1684 - July 24, 1768), English theologian, was born at Hawkhurst, Kent. ...

Calvin in 1556 had argued that Josephus must be mistaken, a view supported by Baronius, who suggested that Quirinius must have been governor of Syria once or even twice before. A further suggestion of Calvin, supported by Henri Valois, was that the decree of Augustus was issued towards the end of Herod’s reign, but the census was not in fact carried out until Quirinius became governor in 6/7 AD. Another proposal of Valois was that Tertullian must have been correct in attributing the census to Saturninus; others suggested the text should read "Quintilius". Writing in 1702, William Whiston,^[23] supported by Prideaux^[24] made a suggestion similar to that of Calvin: that the census was carried out under Herod, but the tax was not raised until Cyrenius was appointed governor on the banishment of Archelaus. John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology. ... Caesar Baronius (October 31, 1538 – June 30, 1607), Italian cardinal and ecclesiastical historian, was born at Sora, and was educated at Veroli and Naples. ... Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. ... William Whiston William Whiston (December 9, 1667 - August 22, 1752), English divine and mathematician, was born at Norton in Leicestershire, of which village his father was rector. ... Humphrey Prideaux (1648 - 1724), divine and scholar, belonged to an ancient Cornish family, was born at Padstow, and educated at Westminster School and at Oxford. ...

Finally there were alternative translations of the text. One proposed by Herwaert in 1612^[25]and supported by Kepler, Whitby,^[26] Perizonius and Leclerc although rejected by Casaubon, involved translating the words of Luke as "this taxing was made before Cyrenius was governor of Syria". A different translation was proposed by Theodore Beza and supported by many others: "This first enrolment was made, when Cyrenius was governor of Syria", arguing that Quirinius must have carried out the census during Herod's reign, operating as a subordinate or equal of the serving governor.^[27] Kepler redirects here. ... Daniel Whitby (1638-1726) was an English theologian. ... Perizonius (or Accinctus) was the name of Jakob Voorbroek (October 26, 1651 - April 6, 1715), a Dutch classical scholar, who was born at Appingedam in Groningen. ... Jean Leclerc (March 19, 1657 in Geneva - January 8, 1736 in Amsterdam) was a Swiss theologian and biblical scholar. ... Isaac Casaubon (February 18, 1559 - July 1, 1614) was a classical scholar, first in France then later in England, regarded by many at the time as the most learned in Europe. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Lardner rejects most of these arguments. Quirinius could not have been governor before, because the names of the governors during Herod were known, and "there is no room for Cyrenius at this time"; references to other names cannot be accurate, because all the earliest manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke refer to Quirinius, as did Justin Martyr, writing before Tertullian;^[28] the suggestion of a ten-year gap between the edict and census was directly contrary to Luke's text; and the suggestion of a similar gap between census and taxation is contradicted by Josephus, who "is as express in this matter as can be". Justin Martyr (also Justin the Martyr, Justin of Caesarea, Justin the Philosopher) (100–165) was an early Christian apologist and saint. ...

While not absolutely rejecting Herwaert's translation, he says he is "not fully satisfied", finding it "a very uncommon use of the word", that does not appear to have been understood in this way by any of the Early Christians writers such as Justin Martyr or Eusebius. He prefers Beza's approach because at least it agrees with the traditional interpretation, that the census was carried out by Quirinius, but proposes a variant offered by Joseph Scaliger: "This was the first assessment of Cyrenius, governor of Syria", arguing that the reference is not to the title Quirinius had at the time, but the one he would later be known by.^[29] The Early Christians is a term used to refer to the early followers of Jesus of Nazareth, before the emergence of established Christian orthodoxy. ... Justin Martyr (also Justin the Martyr, Justin of Caesarea, Justin the Philosopher) (100–165) was an early Christian apologist and saint. ... Eusebius is the name of several significant historical people: Pope Eusebius - Pope in AD 309 - 310. ... Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) was the tenth child and third son of Julius Caesar Scaliger and Andiette de Roques Lobejac. ...

Lardner's work was influential - his preferred interpretation was adopted by Paley in 1803.^[30] However, more skeptical views were also beginning to be felt. In his Philosophical Dictionary (1765), Voltaire quotes the views of Dumarsais on the passage in Luke: "how many decided falsehoods are contained in these few words".^[31] For the singer of the same name, see Voltaire (musician). ...

Nineteenth century

Some variants of the arguments Lardner had discussed continued to be put forward in the early nineteenth century. Hug, in 1808, argued that Quirinius had carried out the census while Saturninus was governor. Paulus and William Hales^[32] supported the idea that the census was initiated by Augustus under Herod, but not carried into effect until 6 AD. Tholuck, along with Storr and Friedrich Süskind, repeated Herwaert's translation, implying a census under Herod before Quirinius. Winer, however, described that translation as "not merely ambiguous, but awkward and ungrammatical", and suggested that the original name in the text was Quintilius.^[33] Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob Paulus (born 1 September 1761, died 10 August 1851) was a German theologian and critic of the Christian bible. ... Friedrich August Gottreu Tholuck (March 30, 1799 - June 10, 1877) was a German Protestant church leader. ... Georg Benedikt Winer (April 13, 1789 - May 12, 1858), German Protestant theologian, was born at Leipzig. ...

In his groundbreaking 1839 book, Das Leben Jesu, the scholar David Friedrich Strauss rejected all of these arguments, affirming that Luke's account was a fiction ("we have before us two equally unhistorical narratives … composed … quite independently of each other"^[34]) intended to show the birth of Jesus as a fulfilment of prophecy: "The Evangelist ... knew perfectly well what [Mary] had to do [in Bethlehem]; namely, to fulfil the prophecy of Micah, by giving birth, in the city of David, to the Messiah".^[35] A similar approach was adopted by the French scholar Ernest Renan in his bestselling 1863 book, The Life of Jesus: "Jesus", he asserted firmly, "was born at Nazareth".^[36]. David Friedrich Strauss (January 27, 1808 - February 8, 1874), was a German theologian and writer. ... Ernest Renan (February 28, 1823–October 12, 1892) was a French philosopher and writer. ...

More traditional scholars continued to propose ways of reconciling the Luke account with that of Josephus. Huschke^[37] in 1840 and Wieseler in 1843^[38] supported the Herwaert translation. But in an influential study published in Latin in 1854^[39] and in an expanded version in German in 1869,^[40] August Wilhelm Zumpt proposed a new approach: he revived the theory of Baronius, that Quirinius had previously been governor of Syria, but placed this after the death of Herod, in 3 BC. This still conflicted with the account in the Gospel of Matthew, which clearly indicates the birth of Jesus before the death of Herod; Zumpt suggested that the census might have been initiated towards the end of Herod's reign, and only completed when Quirinius was governor, and therefore known by that name. August Wilhelm Zumpt (1815-1877) was a classical scholar, known chiefly in connection with Latin epigraphy. ...

Zumpt's theory received widespread support,^[41] especially when supported by the historian Theodor Mommsen, who interpreted the Tiburtine Inscription, a Roman inscription discovered in 1746, as referring to someone who had twice been legate (governor) of Syria, and speculated that this might refer to Quirinius.^[42]. For some time, this became the mainstream position among biblical scholars. In 1896 the Scottish archaeologist Sir William Ramsay developed this theory further, although he argued that Quirinius had been governor as far back as 10 BC, alongside Saturninus.^[43] Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen (November 30, 1817–November 1, 1903) was a Danish/German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician, archaeologist[1] and writer[2], generally regarded as the greatest classicist of the 19th century. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with William M. Ramsey. ...

In 1886, however, the theologian Emil Schürer, in his monumental study, Geschichte des judischen Volks im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ), closely criticised the traditional view. He raised five points which showed, he believed, that the Luke account could not be historically accurate: (1) nothing is known in history of a general census by Augustus; (2) in a Roman census Joseph would not have had to travel to Bethlehem, and Mary would not have to travel at all; (3) no Roman census would have been made in Judea during the reign of Herod; (4) Josephus records no such census, and it would have been a notable innovation; (5) Quirinius was not governor of Syria until long after the reign of Herod.^[44] Emil Schürer (May 2, 1844 - April 30, 1910), German Protestant theologian, was born at Augsburg. ...

Twentieth century

In 1931 Groag questioned the interpretation that had been placed on the Tiburtine inscription, pointing out that that the stone merely refers to someone who held a legateship for the second time in the province of Syria, but does not specify that the earlier legateship was also in Syria.^[45] Ronald Syme, following Groag's reasoning, argued that "whether or not the man was Quirinius—and it could still perhaps be maintained that he was—there is no reason for believing that he was twice governor of Syria."^[46] Syme thought L. Calpurnius Piso was the more likely candidate for the inscription, while Groag argued that it referenced M. Plautius Silvanus.^[47] Lucius Calpurnius Piso (PW 99) (48 BC - 32 AD) was a statesman of ancient Rome. ... Marcus Plautius Silvanus was an ordinary consul in 2 BC,[1] and proconsul of Asia in 4 AD. He also served in Pannonia in 9 AD[2], Dalmatia[3] and Illyricum. ...

An important element in the theory that Quirinius was twice governor of Syria was the belief that he had conducted the Homonadensian war from Syria, and that this war took place between 3 and 2 B.C.^[48] But Syme argued in 1934 that the campaign might be better dated to 6 B.C., and that Quirinius conducted it as governor of Galatia, rather than as governor of Syria.^[49], a view supported by most modern scholars.^[50] They hold this position, in part, for reasons of historical precedent. As J.G.C. Anderson observed, "A second tenure of Syria or indeed any other consular province under one and the same emperor by a senator who was not a member of the imperial house [i.e., Quirinius] is unparalleled."^[51]

There were still some who defended a previous term of government by Quirinius. Thomas Corbishley argued in 1934 that there was room for Quirinius as governor around 10 BC.^[52] Ethelbert Stauffer, in 1960, suggested that Quirinius had operated as a ‘Generalissimo of the East’ from 12BC,^[53] neither have been supported. Instead, most attempts to reconcile Luke with Josephus focused on the alternative translations in the tradition of Herwaert. F.M. Heichelheim, in 1938, argued that the "original meaning" of the text was properly rendered as "This census was the first before that under the prefectureship of Quirinius in Syria".^[54] This position has been followed by several other scholars.^[55] Heichelheim's proposed translation was rejected by Horst Braunert, who argued that the reference in Acts 5:37 to "the census", implied that Luke knew only of one,^[56] and that ancient sources clearly understood the phrase in question to mean "the first census." The proposed translation has been described by others as "implausible" (A. N. Sherwin-White),^[57] "almost impossible" (Daniel B. Wallace),^[58] and "obviously a last-ditch solution to save the historicity involved" (Joseph Fitzmyer).^[59] None of the seven most popular English translations of the New Testament accepts the alternative interpretation.^[60] Adrian Nicholas Sherwin-White (born 1911, died January 11, 1993) was an Oxford historian and member of the British Academy who specialized in Roman history. ... Daniel Baird Wallace is a professor of New Testament Studies at Dallas Theological Seminary where he has been tenured since 1995. ... Rev. ...

Many of the suggestions put forward involve a census carried out on Roman orders under King Herod. Under Herod, Palestine was a client kingdom which paid tribute to the Romans.^[61] He raised the money for this tribute through taxation of his subjects.^[62] The people of Herod's kingdom were not directly taxed by the empire; thus a census and taxation during Herods rule, if ordered and administered by an imperial official, would be unprecedented. Ramsay argues that Luke does not claim the census was conducted by a Roman official.^[63] B. W. R. Pearson suggested that such a census could have been carried out under Herod^[64] Citing historian E. T. Salmon, he observed that client kingdoms ‘possessed no more than interim status”^[65] and argued that such a census is plausible,^[66] citing the Roman-type census ordered by King Archelaus of Cappadocia, of the tribe of Clitae in Cilicia Tracheia.^[67] Like the census in Iudea, the attempted census by Archelaos was forcefully resisted by the Clitae.^[68] Schürer argued that an earlier enrollment in Iudea would have evoked the same response, and that this would have been noted by Josephus.^[69] Sir William Mitchell Ramsay (March 15, 1851, Glasgow –April 20, 1939) was a Scottish archaeologist. ... Archelaus (died 17) was the last king of Cappadocia. ... The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia, 1199-1375. ...

A few authors have suggested that the Gospel of Luke correctly refers to the census of A.D. 6, and that the account in the Gospel of Matthew is wrong.^[70], although this appears to conflict with the reference to Jesus being "about thirty years of age" when he began preaching (Luke 3:23).^[71]

The majority view among modern scholars is that there was only one census, in 6 AD, and the author of the Gospel of Luke misidentified it with the reign of Herod the Great. In The Birth of the Messiah (1977), a detailed study of the infancy narratives of Jesus, the American scholar Raymond E. Brown concluded that "this information is dubious on almost every score, despite the elaborate attempts by scholars to defend Lucan accuracy."^[72]James Dunn remarks: “It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that Luke was mistaken”.^[73] Geza Vermes comments, "from whatever angle one looks at it, the census referred to by Luke conflicts with historical reality".^[74] W. D. Davies and E. P. Sanders: “on many points, especially about Jesus’ early life, the evangelists were ignorant … they simply did not know, and, guided by rumour, hope or supposition, did the best they could”.^[75] J. P. Meier considered "attempts to reconcile Luke 2:1 with the facts of ancient history... hopelessly contrived",^[76]. Raymond Edward Brown (May 22, 1928 - August 8, 1998), was an American Roman Catholic priest and Biblical scholar. ... James D. G. (Jimmy) Dunn was for many years the Lightfoot Professor of Divinity in the Department of Theology at the University of Durham. ... Geza Vermes (born 22 June 1924) is a Jewish scholar and writer on religious history, particularly Jewish and Christian. ... Ed Parish Sanders (born 1937) is a leading New Testament theologian (Th. ... John Paul Meier is a prominent Biblical scholar and Catholic priest. ...

In contrast, atheist historian Richard Carrier has written 'I do not see Luke's account as historically impossible, as some have tried to argue',^[77] and has dismissed the argument that Luke's account of the census is a fabrication.^[78] Richard Carrier Richard Carrier M.A., M.Phil. ...

Historicity of Luke's details

Some sources questioned the historicity of other parts of Luke's account. He describes a decree of Augustus requiring registration of the whole οἰκουμένη. This word literally means the "inhabited [world]", but was frequently used to indicate the Roman Empire.^[79] No simultaneous census of the entire Empire in Augustus' time is attested to outside of Luke,^[80] though Luke's account does not necessarily mean that the whole empire was enrolled at once.^[81] J. Thorley argued that Luke's wording only means that Augustus decreed that the registration practices that had been employed in Italy for centuries and in the provinces for some time should be extended throughout the Roman world, including client kingdoms.^[82] Sherwin-White suggested that Luke intended to refer only to a policy of universal registration promulgated by Augustus, and that this was first implemented in Judaea under Quirinius.^[83] For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ...

Luke's statement that Joseph and Mary had to travel to Bethlehem 'because he was descended from the house and family of David' has often been called into question; James Dunn wrote: "the idea of a census requiring individuals to move to the native town of long dead ancestors is hard to credit".^[84] E. P. Sanders considered it unreasonable to think that there was ever a decree that required people to travel in order to be registered for tax purposes, and supplied a number of arguments in support: it would require people to keep track of millions of ancestors; tens of thousands of descendants of David would all be arriving at Bethlehem, his birthplace, at the same time; and Herod, whose dynasty was unrelated to the Davidic line, would hardly have wished to call attention to royal ancestry that had a greater claim to legitimacy. He adds that it would have been the practice for the census-takers, not the taxed, to travel, and that Joseph, resident in Galilee, would not have been covered by a census in Judea.^[85]. James D. G. (Jimmy) Dunn was for many years the Lightfoot Professor of Divinity in the Department of Theology at the University of Durham. ... Ed Parish Sanders (born 1937) is a leading New Testament theologian (Th. ...

However, R. E. Brown cautioned against such interpretation, stating, “One cannot rule out the possibility that, since Romans often adapted their administration to local circumstances, a census conducted in Judea would respect the strong attachment of Jewish tribal and ancestral relationships.”^[86] He also noted that Luke himself would have known of Roman census practices by personal experience, and that “it is dangerous to assume that he described a process of registration that would have been potentially opposed to everything he and his readers knew.”^[87] M. D. Smith was critical of E. P. Sander’s view, stating simply, “nowhere does Luke say that the census of Quirinius required people to travel to the home of their ancestors”, but only that “all went to their own towns” — observing that Luke's reference to traveling to one's ancestral home was specific to Joseph.^[88]

Recently, atheist historian Richard Carrier has noted that 'there could easily be any number of reasons why an ancestral connection with Bethlehem would require them to journey there for a census of Judaea', and 'We do know that censuses could have such requirements for travel, not only from papyri [1.3] but also from common sense'.^[89] Richard Carrier Richard Carrier M.A., M.Phil. ...

Footnotes

Zealotry denotes zeal in excess, referring to cases where activism and ambition in relation to an ideology have become excessive to the point of being harmful to others, oneself, and ones own cause. ... John Paul Meier is a prominent Biblical scholar and Catholic priest. ... Raymond Edward Brown (May 22, 1928 - August 8, 1998), was an American Roman Catholic priest and Biblical scholar. ... Adrian Nicholas Sherwin-White (born 1911, died January 11, 1993) was an Oxford historian and member of the British Academy who specialized in Roman history. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... Emil Schürer (May 2, 1844 - April 30, 1910), German Protestant theologian, was born at Augsburg. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... Geza Vermes (born 22 June 1924) is a Jewish scholar and writer on religious history, particularly Jewish and Christian. ... Emil Schürer (May 2, 1844 - April 30, 1910), German Protestant theologian, was born at Augsburg. ... Geza Vermes (born 22 June 1924) is a Jewish scholar and writer on religious history, particularly Jewish and Christian. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... Combatants Octavian Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII of Egypt Commanders Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Mark Antony Strength 260 warships, mostly liburnian vessels 220 warships, mostly quinqueremes and 60 egyptian warships Casualties Unknown Almost all of Antonys fleet The Battle of Actium was a naval battle of the Roman Civil War between... Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... Geza Vermes (born 22 June 1924) is a Jewish scholar and writer on religious history, particularly Jewish and Christian. ... Ed Parish Sanders (born 1937) is a leading New Testament theologian (Th. ... Humphrey Prideaux (1648 - 1724), divine and scholar, belonged to an ancient Cornish family, was born at Padstow, and educated at Westminster School and at Oxford. ... James Ussher (also spelled Usher) (January 4, 1581–March 21, 1656) was Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland between 1625–1656 and a prolific religious scholar who most famously published a chronology which dated creation from 4004 BC. Ussher was born in Dublin, Ireland into a well-to... Nathaniel Lardner (1684 - July 24, 1768), English theologian, was born at Hawkhurst, Kent. ... Woodcut of Friedrich Spanheim Friedrich Spanheim the elder (January 1, 1600 — May 14, 1649) was a Calvinistic professor at the University of Leiden. ... Charles de Marguetel de Saint-Denis, seigneur de Saint-Évremond (April 1, 1610 - September 29, 1703), was a French soldier, epicurean, essayist and literary critic. ... Victor Ehrenberg (* November 22, 1891, Altona, Hamburg - January 25, 1976, London) was a German historian. ... Adrian Nicholas Sherwin-White (born 1911, died January 11, 1993) was an Oxford historian and member of the British Academy who specialized in Roman history. ... Ronald Syme Sir Ronald Syme (11 March 1903 – 4 September 1989), New Zealand-born historian, was the preeminent classicist of the 20th century. ... Raymond Edward Brown (May 22, 1928 - August 8, 1998), was an American Roman Catholic priest and Biblical scholar. ... John Paul Meier is a prominent Biblical scholar and Catholic priest. ... Adrian Nicholas Sherwin-White (born 1911, died January 11, 1993) was an Oxford historian and member of the British Academy who specialized in Roman history. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... The Nativity by Petrus Christus, c. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... Fergus Millar FBA is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus Oxford University. ... The Very Rev. ... There are several individuals called Robert Scott, including: Robert Scott, New Zealand radio broadcaster www. ... A Greek-English Lexicon is the standard lexicographical work of the ancient Greek language, begun in the nineteenth century and now in its ninth (revised) edition. ... Sir Henry Stuart Jones (May 15, 1867 - June 29, 1939) was a British academic and Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford University, where he held an appointment from 1920 to 1927 as Camden Professor of Ancient History. ...

See also

• Luke 2

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External links

• Josephus' Antiquities 18