In the anatomy of animals, the brain, or encephalon, is the supervisory center of the nervous system. Although the brain is usually cited as the supervisory center of vertebrate nervous systems, the same term can also be used for the invertebrate central nervous system. In most animals, the brain is located in the head. Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the Encyclopédie. ... Phyla Porifera (sponges) Ctenophora (comb jellies) Cnidaria Placozoa Bilateria Acoelomorpha Orthonectida Rhombozoa ?Myxozoa Superphylum Deuterostomia    Chordata (vertebrates, etc. ... The nervous system of an animal coordinates the activity of the muscles, monitors the organs, constructs and processes input from the senses, and initiates actions. ... Typical classes Petromyzontidae (lampreys) Placodermi - extinct Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Acanthodii - extinct Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths) Dipnoi (lungfish) Amphibia (amphibians) Reptilia (reptiles) Aves (birds) Mammalia (mammals) Vertebrata is a subphylum of chordates, specifically, those with backbones or spinal columns. ... Invertebrate is a term coined by Chevalier de Lamarck to describe any animal without a backbone or vertebra, like insects, squids and worms. ... The human central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. ... For other uses of the word head, see head (disambiguation). ...

The brain controls and coordinates most movement, behavior and homeostatic body functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature. Functions of the brain are responsible for cognition, emotion, memory, motor learning and other sorts of learning. The term Movement has a variety of different meanings: Physical movement between points in space (A to B). The amount of movement is called distance. ... Behavior (U.S.) or behaviour (U.K.) refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. ... Homeostasis or homoeostasis is the property of an open system, especially living organisms, to regulate its internal environment so as to maintain a stable condition, by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. ... Wiktionary has a definition of: Cognition The term cognition is used in several different loosely related ways. ... In psychology and common terminology, emotion is the language of a persons internal state of being, normally based in or tied to their internal (physical) and external (social) sensory feeling. ... For computer memory, see computer storage. ... Motor learning is the process of improving the smoothness and accuracy of movements. ... Learned redirects here. ...

The brain is primarily made up of two types of cells: glia and neurons. Glia function primarily to support and protect the neurons. The neurons carry information in the form of electrical pulses known as action potentials. They communicate with other neurons in the brain and throughout the body by sending various chemicals called neurotransmitters across gaps known as synapses. Small invertebrates such as insects may have a million neurons in the brain, larger vertebrate brains have over one hundred billion neurons. The human brain is particularly complex and enlarged. Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. ... Neuroglia cells of the brain shown by Golgis method. ... Neurons (also called nerve cells) are the primary cells of the nervous system. ... Schematic of an electrophysiological recording of an action potential showing the various phases which occur as the wave passes a point on a cell membrane. ... Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between a presynaptic and a postsynaptic neuron. ... Synapses allow nerve cells to communicate with one another through axons and dendrites, converting electrical signals into chemical ones. ... Orders Subclass Apterygota Symphypleona - globular springtails Subclass Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) Subclass Dicondylia Monura - extinct Thysanura (common bristletails) Subclass Pterygota Diaphanopteroidea - extinct Palaeodictyoptera - extinct Megasecoptera - extinct Archodonata - extinct Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) Infraclass Neoptera Blattodea (cockroaches) Mantodea (mantids) Isoptera (termites) Zoraptera Grylloblattodea Dermaptera (earwigs) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets... Neurons (also called nerve cells) are the primary cells of the nervous system. ... Picture of a human brain generated from MRI data In the anatomy of humans, the human brain is the center of the central nervous system and the primary control center for the peripheral nervous system. ...

A smart device

Brains in nature

Although many classes of animals have nervous systems, three groups of animals, with some exceptions, have notably complex brains: the arthropods (for example, insects and crustaceans), the cephalopods (octopuses, squid, and similar mollusks), and craniates (vertebrates and their cousins). The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. The arthropod brain consists of a large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing and a central brain with three divisions. The cephalopod brain has a central group of lobes known as circumesophageal lobes that are flanked by two large optical lobes on the left and right (Butler, 2000). A complex is a whole that comprehends a number of parts, especially one with interconnected or mutually related parts. ... Subphyla and Classes Subphylum Trilobitomorpha Trilobita - Trilobites (extinct) Subphylum Chelicerata Arachnida - Spiders, Scorpions, etc. ... Orders Subclass Apterygota Symphypleona - globular springtails Subclass Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) Subclass Dicondylia Monura - extinct Thysanura (common bristletails) Subclass Pterygota Diaphanopteroidea - extinct Palaeodictyoptera - extinct Megasecoptera - extinct Archodonata - extinct Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) Infraclass Neoptera Blattodea (cockroaches) Mantodea (mantids) Isoptera (termites) Zoraptera Grylloblattodea Dermaptera (earwigs) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets... Classes Remipedia Cephalocarida Branchiopoda Ostracoda Maxillopoda Malacostraca The crustaceans (Crustacea) are a large group of arthropods (55,000 species), usually treated as a subphylum. ... Orders Sepiida Sepiolida Spirulida Teuthida Octopoda Vampyromorphida Nautilida The Cephalopods (head-foot) are the mollusc class Cephalopoda characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, and a modification of the mollusc foot into the form of arms or tentacles. ... Families 14 in two suborders, see text The octopus is a cephalopod of the order Octopoda that inhabits many diverse regions of the ocean, especially coral reefs. ... Suborders Myopsina Oegopsina Squids are the large, diverse group of marine mollusks, popular as food in cuisines as widely separated as the Japanese and the Italian. ... Classes Caudofoveata Aplacophora Polyplacophora - Chitons Monoplacophora Bivalvia - Bivalves Scaphopoda - Tusk shells Gastropoda - Snails and Slugs Cephalopoda - Squids, Octopuses, etc. ... Classes Hyperotreti Vertebrata Craniata is a type of chordate animal group that contains vertebrates (vertebrata) and hagfish (Hyperotreti). ... Typical classes Petromyzontidae (lampreys) Placodermi - extinct Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Acanthodii - extinct Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths) Dipnoi (lungfish) Amphibia (amphibians) Reptilia (reptiles) Aves (birds) Mammalia (mammals) Vertebrata is a subphylum of chordates, specifically, those with backbones or spinal columns. ... Diagram of a human eye. ...

The brains of craniates develop from the anterior section of a single dorsal nerve cord, which later becomes the spinal cord. In craniates, the brain is protected by the bones of the skull. Vertebrates are characterized by increasing complexity in the cerebral cortex as one moves up the phylogenetic and evolutionary tree. Primitive vertebrates, like fish, reptiles, and amphibians have cortices with less than six layers of neurons, a structure known as allocortex (Martin, 1996). More complex vertebrates like mammals have developed six-layered neocortex in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex (Martin, 1996). In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain, called gyri, are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions evolved to provide more surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. The neural tube is the embryonal structure that gives rise to the brain and spinal cord. ... The spinal cord is a part of the vertebrate nervous system that is enclosed in and protected by the vertebral column (it passes through the spinal canal). ... For symbolic or mythic uses of the human skull, see Skull (symbolism). ... There are different senses of complexity: In information processing, complexity is a measure of the total number of properties transmitted by an object and detected by an observer. ... The cerebral cortex is a brain structure in vertebrates, including humans. ... A phylogenetic tree is a tree showing the evolutionary interrelationships among various species or other entities that are believed to have a common ancestor. ... The evolutionary tree of living things is currently supposed to run something along the lines of that listed below. ... In the anatomy of animals, the neopallium or neocortex is a part of the telencephalon in the brain. ...

Brains in medicine

The brain, along with the heart, is one of the two most important organs in the human body. Loss of function in this organ fufills some definitions of death. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the brain, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory and control of the body. Head trauma, caused by automobile accidents or other blows to the skull, is a leading cause of death. Often in these cases, more damage is caused by swelling, or edema, than by the impact itself. Stroke, caused by blockage of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death and brain damage. Death is either the cessation of life in a living organism or the state of the organism after that event. ... Intelligence has two different common meanings : Intelligence (trait) Animal intelligence Artificial intelligence Intelligence (information gathering) Business intelligence Military espionage This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Edema ( BE: oedema, formerly known as dropsy) is swelling of any organ or tissue due to accumulation of excess fluid. ... A stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA) occurs when the blood supply to a part of the brain is suddenly interrupted by occlusion (an ischemic stroke- approximately 90%of strokes) or by hemorrhage (a hemorrhagic stroke - approximately 10% of strokes). ... The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body. ...

Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases than injuries. Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease, are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons leading to decrements in movement control, memory, and thinking abilities. Currently, only the symptoms of these diseases can be treated, but stem cell research may offer a cure. Mental illnesses, such as clinical depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder, are now recognized as having a biological basis in the brain. These disease can be treated by psychiatric therapy, by drugs, or by a combination of treatments. Neurodegenerative disease is a condition which affects the brain function. ... Alzheimers disease (AD) or senile dementia of Alzheimers type is a neurodegenerative disease which results in a loss of mental functions due to the deterioration of brain tissue. ... Parkinsons disease (PD; paralysis agitans) is a neurodegenerative disease of the substantia nigra (an area in the basal ganglia of the brain). ... Huntingtons disease or Huntingtons chorea is an inherited disorder characterized by abnormal body movements called chorea, and loss of memory. ... Mouse embryonic stem cells. ... The Scream, the famous painting commonly thought of as depicting the experience of mental illness. ... In ordinary conversation, nearly any mood with some element of sadness may be called depressed. However, for depression to be termed clinical depression it must reach criteria which are generally accepted by clinicians; it is more than just a temporary state of sadness. ... Schizophrenia is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a persistent, often chronic, mental illness variously affecting behavior, thinking, and emotion. ... Bipolar Affective Disorder, also known as manic depression, or BPAD is a disorder of the brain resulting in unusually extreme highs and lows of an individuals mood, i. ... Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), is a term for the psychological consequences of exposure to or confrontation with stressful experiences, which involve actual or threatened death, serious physical injury or a threat to physical integrity and which the person found highly traumatic. ... Psychiatry is a branch of medicine that studies and treats mental and emotional disorders (see mental illness). ... Many drugs are provided in tablet form. ...

Some diseases that affect the brain are caused by germs. Viral or bacterial infection of the meninges, the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to meningitis. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is a deadly disease among cattle and is linked to prions. Three types of viruses: a bacterial virus, otherwise called a bacteriophage (left center); an animal virus (top right); and a retrovirus (bottom right). ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus_Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Meningitis is inflammation of the membranes (meninges) covering the brain and the spinal cord. ... Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or commonly mad cow disease) is a fatal, neurodegenerative disease of cattle, which infects by a mechanism that shocked biologists on its discovery in late 20th century and appears transmissible to humans. ... Binomial name Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758 Cattle are domesticated ungulates, a member of the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. ... For the bird called a prion, see Prion (bird) Prions - short for proteinaceous infectious particle - are infectious self-reproducing protein structures. ...

Some brain disorders are congenital. Tay-Sachs disease, Fragile X syndrome, Down syndrome, and Tourette syndrome are all linked to genetic or chromosomal errors. Malfunctions in the embryonic development of the brain can be caused by genetic factors or by drug use or disease in the mother. A congenital disorder is a medical condition or defect that is present at or before birth (for example, congenital heart disease). ... Tay-Sachs disease is a fatal genetic disorder, inherited in an autosommal recessive pattern, in which harmful quantities of a fatty substance called ganglioside GM2 accumulate in the nerve cells in the brain. ... Fragile X Syndrome is the most common inherited cause of mental impairment, and the most common known cause of autism. ... A child with Down syndrome Down syndrome (also called Downs syndrome) encompasses a number of genetic disorders, of which trisomy 21 (a nondisjunction) is the most representative, causing highly variable degrees of learning difficulties and physical disabilities. ... Tourette syndrome — also called Tourettes syndrome, Tourette Spectrum (TS), Tourettes disorder, or Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (after its discoverer, Georges Gilles de la Tourette) — is a neurological or neurochemical disorder characterized by tics — involuntary, rapid, sudden movements or vocalizations that occur repeatedly in the same way. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Figure 1: Chromosome. ... The study of neural development draws on both neuroscience and developmental biology to describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which complex nervous systems emerge during embryonic development and throughout life. ...

Brains in philosophy

Some philosophers consider that "brain" is synonymous with "mind", while others believe that the mind is the software of the hardware-brain. This issue, called the mind-body problem, and many others are the subject of the philosophy of mind: what is consciousness? Do non-human animals have consciousness? The mind is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the human brain, particularly those of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as personality, thought, reason, memory, intelligence and emotion. ... Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of a computer for some purpose. ... The mind-body problem is the problem of determining the relationship between the human body and the human mind. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Consciousness is a quality of the mind generally regarded to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and ones environment. ...

Another branch of philosophy, epistemology, discusses the notion that we could be brains in vats, and that the reality around us could be simulated. While not taken as a fact by philosophers, it is used as an argument towards philosophical skepticism. This article or section should include material from Episteme Epistemology (from the Greek words episteme=science and logos=word/speech) is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. ... In philosophy, the brain-in-a-vat is any of a variety of thought experiments intended to draw out certain features of our ideas of knowledge, reality, truth, mind, and meaning. ... Simulated reality describes a hypothetical environment that, although experienced as real, is actually a highly detailed simulation of reality. ... This article is in need of attention. ...

Artificial brains

Computer scientists have produced computer systems called neural networks that are loosely based on the structure of neuron connections in the brain. Artificial intelligence seeks to replicate brain function (although not necessarily brain mechanisms) more exactly, but this has not yet proven successful. Creating an algorithm to mimic a biological brain is extremely difficult because the brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence models the brain using the mathematical tools of chaos theory and dynamical systems. A neural network is an interconnected group of neurons. ... Artificial intelligence (also known as machine intelligence and often abbreviated as AI) is intelligence exhibited by any manufactured (i. ... Flowcharts are often used to represent algorithms. ... Chaos theory, in mathematics and physics, deals with the behavior of certain nonlinear dynamical systems that (under certain conditions) exhibit the phenomenon known as chaos, most famously characterised by sensitivity to initial conditions (see butterfly effect). ... In engineering and mathematics, a dynamical system is a deterministic process in which a functions value changes over time according to a rule that is defined in terms of the functions current value. ...

Interfacing brains with machines

The activity of a brain can be detected by electrodes, raising the possibility of "brain-computer interface". A direct mind-computer interface or direct neural interface is literally that - a direct cybernetic link between a mind and a computer. ...

The reverse path has also been demonstrated; brain implants have been used to generate artificial hearing and (crude and experimental) artificial vision for deaf and blind people, and brain pacemakers are now common to regulate brain activity in conditions such as Parkinson's disease. Parkinsons disease (PD; paralysis agitans) is a neurodegenerative disease of the substantia nigra (an area in the basal ganglia of the brain). ...

Both of these avenues of research have potentially serious ethical implications.

For example, using electrodes in a brain and a remote control, researchers have been able to remotely control the movements of a rat. This offers the possibility to create an electronically-controlled biological "ratbot" that could go in dangerous places. A remote control is a device used for the remote operation of a machine. ...

The study of brains

Fields of study

The brain is studied by several areas of science. Neuroscience seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological perspective. Psychology seeks to understand behavior and the brain. The terms neurology and psychiatry usually refer to medical applications of neuroscience and psychology, respectively. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields studying the brain, such as computer science (as in Artificial intelligence, etc) and philosophy. For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Neuroscience is a field of study which deals with the structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology and pathology of the nervous system. ... Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul and logos = word) is the study of mind, thought, and behaviour. ... Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the central and peripheral nervous systems. ... Psychiatry is a branch of medicine that studies and treats mental and emotional disorders (see mental illness). ... Cognitive science is usually defined as the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence (e. ... Computer science (academically, CS, CSC or compsci) encompasses a variety of topics that relates to computation, like abstract analysis of algorithms, formal grammars, and subjects such as programming languages, program design, software and computer hardware. ... Artificial intelligence (also known as machine intelligence and often abbreviated as AI) is intelligence exhibited by any manufactured (i. ... Philosophy (from a combination of the Greek words philos meaning love and sophia meaning wisdom), as a practice, aims at some kind of understanding, knowledge or wisdom about fundamental matters such as reality, knowledge, meaning, value, being and truth. ...

Methods of observation

Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and drawbacks. Electrophysiology, in which wire electrodes are implanted in the brain, allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or fields of neurons, but since it requires invasive surgery, this is a technique usually reserved for lab animals. By placing electrodes on the scalp, electroencephalography (EEG) measures brainwaves, which are the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain and very little sub-cortical activity. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in blood flow in the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. Behavioral tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in all animals. Post-mortem analyses of brains allow for the study of anatomy and protein expression patterns but can only be done after the human or animal is dead. Electrophysiology is the science and branch of physiology that pertains to the flow of ions in biological tissues and, in particular, to the electrical recording techniques that enable the measurement of this flow. ... Electroencephalography is the neurophysiologic exploration of the electrical activity of the brain by the application of electrodes to the scalp. ... Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (or fMRI) describes the use of MRI to measure hemodynamic signals related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ...

Myths

The following are some common myths or misconceptions about the mind and brain, perpetuated through common or urban myths, the media, and the promotion of dubious products to consumers (Sala, 1999). A number of practitioners of pseudoscience, new age philosophies, and mystical or occult practices are known to use some of these myths as a part of their belief systems. Also see popular psychology. Urban Legend is also the name of a 1998 movie. ... Mass media is the term used to denote, as a class, that section of the media specifically conceived and designed to reach a very large audience (typically at least as large as the whole population of a nation state). ... A pseudoscience is any body of knowledge purported to be scientific or supported by science but which fails to comply with the scientific method. ... New Age describes a broad movement characterized by alternative approaches to traditional Western culture. ... The word occult comes from Latin occultus (hidden), referring to the knowledge of the secret or knowledge of the hidden and often meaning knowledge of the supernatural, as opposed to knowledge of the visible or knowledge of the measurable, usually referred to as science. ... Popular psychology refers to concepts and theories about human mental life and behaviour that come from outside the technical study of psychology, but purport to go beyond everyday knowledge. ...

• Myth: The human brain is firm and grey. The fresh/living brain is actually very soft, jelly-like and deep red. They do not become firm and grey until they have been preserved with various chemicals/resins.
• Myth: Humans use only 10% or 1% of their brain. Though the brain still holds mysteries that are being studied, every part of the brain is known to have a function.
• Myth: Mental abilities are separated into the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
• Myth: Creativity can be easily developed using the simple brainstorming/lateral thinking techniques.
• Myth: Increased age leads to reduced mental ability. Mental ability is affected by how much we use our brains, both for tasks involving coordination of body movement and in pure thought processes, such as problem solving.
• Myth: Learning can be achieved more powerfully through subliminal techniques.
• Myth: Hypnosis can lead to perfect recall of details. Not only is this not entirely true, an incompetent or deceptive hypnotist can actually implant memories of events that never occurred.

Human brain viewed from above, showing cerebral hemispheres. ... One can define creativity as a tool to develop innovation. ...

Inside brains

Anatomy

In insects, the brain can be divided into four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are positioned behind each eye and process visual stimuli (Butler, 2000). The protocerebrum contains the mushroom bodies, which respond to smell, and the central body complex. The deutocerebrum includes the antennal lobes, which are similar to the mammalian olfactory bulb, and the mechanosensory neuropils which receive information from touch receptors on the head and antennae. The antennal lobes of flies and moths are quite complex. The olfactory bulb (1) is relatively large in the rabbit brain The olfactory bulb is a part of the brain that is a distinct outgrowth from the forebrain of mammals. ... The cerebral cortex is a brain structure in vertebrates, including humans. ... Cerebellum (in blue) of the human brain General Features Location: It is found at the bottom rear of the head (the hindbrain), directly above the brainstem. ... The medulla oblongata is the lower portion of the brainstem. ... The mushroom bodies or corpora pedunculata are a pair of structures in the brain of insects and other arthropods. ... The olfactory bulb (1) is relatively large in the rabbit brain The olfactory bulb is a part of the brain that is a distinct outgrowth from the forebrain of mammals. ... This article is about the insect. ... Lepidopteran on a flower. ...

In cephalopods, the brain is divided into two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass. These parts are divided by the animal's esophagus. The super- and subesophagal masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes. The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain proper since the optic lobes anatomically separate from the brain and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much of the visual processing and can be functionally considered to be a part of the brain. The esophagus, oe/œsophagus*, or gullet is the muscular tube in vertebrates through which ingested food passes from the mouth area to the stomach. ...

In vertebrates, a gross division into three major parts is used: hindbrain (medulla oblongata and metencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon) and forebrain (diencephalon and telencephalon). Varied taxonomies have been used by assorted schools at various times in history for the study of diverse species. Hindbrain has been used to describe several structures found in the brains of vertebrates. ... The medulla oblongata is the lower portion of the brainstem. ... In biological anatomy, the mesencephalon (or midbrain) is the middle of three vesicles that arise from the neural tube that forms the brain of developing animals. ... In biological anatomy, the mesencephalon (or midbrain) is the middle of three vesicles that arise from the neural tube that forms the brain of developing animals. ... In the anatomy of vertebrates, the prosencephalon is a part of encephalon, or brain. ... The diencephalon is the region of the brain that includes the epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus. ... In anatomy of mammals, the telencephalon (or cerebrum) is a part the brain. ...

An anterior part of the telencephalon called the cerebrum makes up the largest section of the mammalian brain and in humans, its surface has many deep fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri), giving a wrinkled appearance to the brain. In most vertebrates the metencephalon is the highest integration center in the brain, whereas in mammals this role has been adopted by the cerebrum. Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum, a complex structure that helps in the control of movement. The cerebellum attaches to the hindbrain in a structure called the pons. The cerebrum and the cerebellum consist each of two halves (hemispheres). The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the olfactory bulb is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates, it is relatively small. For other articles about other subjects named brain see brain (disambiguation). ... Orders Subclass Monotremata Monotremata Subclass Marsupialia Didelphimorphia Paucituberculata Microbiotheria Dasyuromorphia Peramelemorphia Notoryctemorphia Diprotodontia Subclass Placentalia Xenarthra Dermoptera Desmostylia Scandentia Primates Rodentia Lagomorpha Insectivora Chiroptera Pholidota Carnivora Perissodactyla Artiodactyla Cetacea Afrosoricida Macroscelidea Tubulidentata Hyracoidea Proboscidea Sirenia The mammals are the class of vertebrate animals primarily characterized by the presence of mammary... The pons is a knob on the brain stem. ... Cerebellum (in blue) of the human brain General Features Location: It is found at the bottom rear of the head (the hindbrain), directly above the brainstem. ... The corpus callosum is the largest white matter structure in the mammalian brain. ... The olfactory bulb (1) is relatively large in the rabbit brain The olfactory bulb is a part of the brain that is a distinct outgrowth from the forebrain of mammals. ...

Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by encephalization and bilateral symmetry. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain a larger-size through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex of layered, networked and convoluted grey matter and white matter. Grey matter refers to tissue mostly comprised of neurons and can be found on the surface of cerebral cortex, as well as in clusters called nuclei deep within the brain. White matter refers to axons and their surrounding myelin insulation, which gives this tissue its white color. White matter is found in bundles of fibers known as tracts which connect the different parts of the brain. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with three layers of gray matter, along with gray deep brain nucleus, supported and interconnected by deep brain white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons, a structure known as neocortex. Encephalization refers to the tendency for a species toward larger brains through evolutionary time. ... In biology, bilateral symmetry is a characteristic of multicellular organisms, particularly animals. ... Grey matter is a category of nervous tissue with many nerve cell bodies and few myelinated axons. ... White matter is one of two categories of tissue in the nervous system. ... An axon, or nerve fiber, is a long slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, which conducts electrical impulses away from the neurons cell body or soma. ... In neuroscience, myelin is an electrically insulating fatty layer that surrounds the axons of many neurons, especially those in the peripheral nervous system. ... Binomial name Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies Homo sapiens idaltu (extinct) Homo sapiens sapiens Human beings define themselves in biological, social, and spiritual terms. ... The cerebral cortex is a brain structure in vertebrates, including humans. ... In the anatomy of animals, the neopallium or neocortex is a part of the telencephalon in the brain. ...

The meninges are the system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. The three-layered covering is made of dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater. The brain is suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, which circulates between layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called ventricles. The meninges (singular meninx) are the system of membranes that contain the brain. ... The dura mater (from the Latin hard mother) is the tough and inflexible outermost meningeal layer. ... The arachnoid layer is the second or middle layer of the meninges, the membranes surrounding the brain. ... The pia mater (Latin: tender mother, itself a translation from Arabic) is the delicate innermost layer of the meninges - the membranes surrounding the brain. ... Cerebrospinal fluid, CSF in short, is the clear fluid that occupies the subarachnoid space (the space between the skull and cortex of the brain). ... In anatomy, a ventricle is a part of the body filled with fluid. ...

Regions identified in chordate brains include: Typical Classes Subphylum Urochordata - Tunicates Ascidiacea Thaliacea Larvacea Subphylum Cephalochordata - Lancelets Subphylum Myxini - Hagfishes Subphylum Vertebrata - Vertebrates Petromyzontida - Lampreys Placodermi (extinct) Chondrichthyes - Cartilaginous fishes Acanthodii (extinct) Actinopterygii - Ray-finned fishes Actinistia - Coelacanths Dipnoi - Lungfishes Amphibia - Amphibians Reptilia - Reptiles Aves - Birds Mammalia - Mammals Chordates (phylum Chordata) include the vertebrates, together with...

• rhombencephalon
  • myelencephalon
    • medulla oblongata
  • metencephelon
    • pons
    • cerebellum
• mesencephalon
  • tectum
  • midbrain tegmentum
  • crus cererbri
• prosencephalon
  • diencephalon
    • epithalamus
      • pineal gland
    • thalamus
    • hypothalamus
    • pituitary gland
  • telencephalon
    • archipallium
      • basal ganglia
        • caudate nucleus
        • substantia nigra
        • striatum
      • amygdalar cortices
    • paleopallium
      • piriform cortex
      • olfactory bulb
      • amygdalar cortices
    • neopallium
      • cerebral cortex
        • frontal lobe
        • temporal lobe
        • parietal lobe
        • occipital lobe
        • insula
        • cingulate cortex

The medulla oblongata is the lower portion of the brainstem. ... The pons is a knob on the brain stem. ... Cerebellum (in blue) of the human brain General Features Location: It is found at the bottom rear of the head (the hindbrain), directly above the brainstem. ... In biological anatomy, the mesencephalon (or midbrain) is the middle of three vesicles that arise from the neural tube that forms the brain of developing animals. ... The tectum is part of the brain that controls auditory and visual responses. ... The midbrain tegmentum is part of the midbrain extending from the substantia nigra to the cerebral aqueduct. ... In the anatomy of vertebrates, the prosencephalon is a part of encephalon, or brain. ... The diencephalon is the region of the brain that includes the epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus. ... The pineal gland (pronunciation: pI-nE-&l, pI-), or epiphysis, is a small endocrine gland located near the middle of the brain. ... For other uses, see Thalamus Ltd. ... In the anatomy of mammals, the hypothalamus is a region of the brain located below the thalamus, forming the major portion of the ventral region of the diencephalon and functioning to regulate certain metabolic processes and other autonomic activities. ... Located at the base of the skull, the pituitary gland is protected by a bony structure called the sella turcica. ... In anatomy of mammals, the telencephalon (or cerebrum) is a part the brain. ... In anatomy of animals, the archipallium the oldest region of the brains pallium. ... The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei in the brain associated with motor and learning functions. ... The caudate nucleus is a telencephalic nucleus, one of the input nuclei of the basal ganglia; involved with control of voluntary movement in the brain. ... The substantia nigra (Latin for black substance) is a portion of the midbrain thought to be involved in certain aspects of movement and attention. ... The striatum is a subcortical part of the brain consisting of the caudate nucleus and the putamen. ... Location of the amygdala in the human brain Located in the brains medial temporal lobe, the almond-shaped amygdala (in Latin, corpus amygdaloideum) is believed to play a key role in the emotions. ... In anatomy of animals, he paleopallium is a region within the telencephalon in brain. ... In anatomy of animals, the piriform cortex, or pyriform cortex is a region in the brain. ... The olfactory bulb (1) is relatively large in the rabbit brain The olfactory bulb is a part of the brain that is a distinct outgrowth from the forebrain of mammals. ... Location of the amygdala in the human brain Located in the brains medial temporal lobe, the almond-shaped amygdala (in Latin, corpus amygdaloideum) is believed to play a key role in the emotions. ... In the anatomy of animals, the neopallium or neocortex is a part of the telencephalon in the brain. ... The cerebral cortex is a brain structure in vertebrates, including humans. ... The frontal lobe is an area in the brains of vertebrates. ... The temporal lobe is part of the cerebrum. ... The parietal lobe is a lobe in the brain. ... The occipital lobes are the visual processing center of mammalian brains. ... The insula is a region of the cerebral cortex. ... The cingulate cortex is part of the brain and situated roughly in the middle of the cortex. ...

Function

human brain

Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from most portions of a body, interpret those signals and formulate reactions based on prior experiences and on physical needs. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control muscles throughout a body. NIH image of human brain Source: http://lbc. ... NIH image of human brain Source: http://lbc. ... Neurons (also called nerve cells) are the primary cells of the nervous system. ...

Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, and identify potential mates, among other goals. Visual, touch, and auditory sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to the thalamus and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each sensory system: the visual system, the auditory system and the somatosensory system. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the olfactory system. Taste is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the gustatory system. For other uses, see Thalamus Ltd. ... (See also sense) A sensory system is a part of the nervous system that consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and those parts of the brain responsible for processing the information. ... The visual system is what allows us to see. ... The auditory system is the sensory system for the sense of hearing. ... The somatosensory system is the sensory system of somatic sensation. ... The olfactory bulb (1) is relatively large in the rabbit brain The olfactory bulb is a part of the brain that is a distinct outgrowth from the forebrain of mammals. ... The olfactory system is the sensory system used for olfaction. ... Taste is one of the most common and fundamental of the senses in life on Earth. ... The gustatory system is the sensory system that uses taste buds (or lingual papillae) on the upper surface of the tongue to provide information about the taste of food being eaten. ...

To control movement, the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by feedback loops in the cerebellum and the basal ganglia. Nuclei in the brainstem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heartrate and breathing. The term Movement has a variety of different meanings: Physical movement between points in space (A to B). The amount of movement is called distance. ... Structure of a skeletal muscle Muscle is one of the four tissue types. ... Structure of a skeletal muscle Muscle is one of the four tissue types. ... In cybernetics and control theory, feedback is a process whereby some proportion or in general, function, of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. ... Cerebellum (in blue) of the human brain General Features Location: It is found at the bottom rear of the head (the hindbrain), directly above the brainstem. ... The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei in the brain associated with motor and learning functions. ...

Brains also produce hormones that can influence organs elsewhere in a body and brains react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, most of these hormones are released into the circulatory system by a structure called the pituitary gland. Hormone is also the NATO reporting name for the Soviet/Russian Kamov Ka-25 military helicopter. ... Circulatory system - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Located at the base of the skull, the pituitary gland is protected by a bony structure called the sella turcica. ...

It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from interaction among numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on mid-brain and limbic functions as well, especially those of the thalamus and hippocampus. Among vertebrates, sensory processing involves progressively rostral regions of the brain among newer species. Consciousness is a quality of the mind generally regarded to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and ones environment. ... The cerebral cortex is a brain structure in vertebrates, including humans. ... The limbic system is a group of brain structures that are involved in various emotions such as aggression, fear, pleasure and also in the formation of memory. ... For other uses, see Thalamus Ltd. ... The location of the hippocampus in the human brain. ...

Hormones, sensory information, autonomic processes, and cognitive processes alike can exert strong influence on the regulation of brain activities. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that decreases reliance on cortical processes, or that enhances and focuses cortical processes. Such diverse causes as hunger, fatigue, beliefs, unfamiliar information or actual threats can trigger an alert response that can exert control over cognitive priorities. This article or section should include material from Fight-or-flight The flight or fight response, also called the acute stress response, was first described by Walter Cannon in the 1920s as a theory that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system. ...

History

Ancient Greeks held differing views on the function of the brain. Hippocrates believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence, but Aristotle held that the brain was a cooling mechanism for the blood, while the heart was the seat of intelligence. Aristotle reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because they have a proportionally larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness (Bear, 2001). Ancient Greece is the term used to describe the Greek-speaking world in ancient times. ... Hippocrates: a conventionalized image in a Roman portrait bust (19th century engraving) Hippocrates of Cos (c. ... Aristotle (sculpture) Aristotle ( Greek: Αριστοτέλης Aristotelēs) ( 384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. ... Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are present in the blood and help carry oxygen to the rest of the cells in the body Blood is a circulating tissue composed of fluid plasma and cells ( red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets). ... The heart and lungs (from an older edition of Grays Anatomy) The heart (Latin cor) is a hollow, muscular organ that pumps blood through the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions. ...

During the Roman Empire, the anatomist Galen dissected the brains of sheep. He concluded that since the cerebellum was hard to the touch, it must control the muscles, while since the cerebrum was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. Galen further theorized that the brain functioned by movement of fluids through the ventricles (Bear, 2001). The Roman Empire is not the Holy Roman Empire (843-1806). ... Claudius Galenus of Pergamum (131-201 AD), better known as Galen, was an ancient Greek physician. ... This article is about the animal, sheep; for other meanings of Sheep, see Sheep (disambiguation). ...

In the Age of Reason, René Descartes espoused a fluid mechanical view of the brain similar to Galen's theories. However, Descartes thought that although this explanation was adequate to explain the brain functions of animals, the higher mental functions of humans were accomplished by the soul. This theoretical separation of the mind and brain became known as the mind-body problem (Bear, 2001). The Age of Reason is either Thomas Paines book The Age of Reason. ... René Descartes René Descartes (IPA: , March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650), also known as Cartesius, worked as a philosopher and mathematician. ... The soul according to many religious and philosophical traditions, is the ethereal substance — spirit (compare Hebrew rooah or nefesh) — particular to a unique living being. ... The mind is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the human brain, particularly those of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as personality, thought, reason, memory, intelligence and emotion. ... The mind-body problem is the problem of determining the relationship between the human body and the human mind. ...

In the mid-1600s, however, great progress in the anatomy of the brain was achieved with the works of English anatomist Thomas Willis and Flemish anatomist Vesalius. They dispelled many of the wrong notions of Galen and Descartes and discovered many facts about the macro structure of the brain of animals and humans. Thomas Willis Thomas Willis (1621-1673) was an English physician who played an important part in the history of the science of anatomy and was a co-founder of the Royal Society (1662). ... Andreas Vesalius or Andreas Vesal, or Andras van Wesele (1514 - 1564) was a Belgian anatomist and the author of the first complete textbook on human anatomy: De Humanis Corporis Fabrica (On the workings of the Human Body) (Basel, 1543). ...

In the 1700s, Luigi Galvani showed that electrically stimulating the sciatic nerve of a dissected frog caused movement of the attached muscle. His experiments led scientists away from the fluid mechanical theory of the brain and toward an electrical theory. Galvani's work led, in the 19th century, to the development of research in bioelectricity and to the discovery of the membrane potential, action potential, etc., by researchers such as Emil du Bois-Reymond. Luigi Galvani Luigi Galvani (September 9, 1737–December 4, 1798) was an Italian physician and physicist who lived and died in Bologna. ... The sciatic nerve is a large nerve that runs down the lower limb. ... In cryptography, FROG is a block cipher authored by Georgoudis, Leroux and Chaves. ... The article on electrical energy is located elsewhere. ... Bioelectromagnetism (sometimes equated with bioelectricity) refers to the static voltage of biological cells and to the electric currents that flow in living tissues, such as nerves and muscles, as a result of action potentials. ... Transmembrane potential difference is the electrical potential difference across a plasma membrane. ... Schematic of an electrophysiological recording of an action potential showing the various phases which occur as the wave passes a point on a cell membrane. ... Emil du Bois-Reymond. ...

The scientists of the 1800s debated whether areas of the brain corresponded to specific functions or if the brain functioned as a whole (the "aggregate field theory"). Jean Pierre Flourens championed the aggregate field theory in opposition to the pseudoscience of phrenology, founded by Franz Joseph Gall. However, the work of Paul Pierre Broca, Karl Wernicke, and Korbinian Brodmann eventually helped show that areas of the brain had specific functions, though some functions were repeated, an idea known as parallel distributed processing (Kandel, 2001). Marie Jean Pierre Flourens (April 15, 1794 - December 6, 1867) was a French physiologist. ... A pseudoscience is any body of knowledge purported to be scientific or supported by science but which fails to comply with the scientific method. ... Phrenology (from Greek: φρην, mind and λογος, study) is a theory which claims to be able to determine character and personality traits and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head (reading bumps). Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall around 1800, and very popular in the 19th... Franz Joseph Gall (March 9, 1758 - August 22, 1828) was a German neuroanatomist and physiologist who was a pioneer in the study of the localization of mental functions in the brain. ... Paul Pierre Broca (June 28, 1824 - July 9, 1880) was a French physician, anatomist and anthropologist. ... Carl Wernicke -- 1848-1905. ... Korbinian Brodmann (November 17, 1868 - August 22, 1918) was a German neurologist who became famous for his definition of the cerebral cortex into 52 distinct regions from their cytoarchitectonic (histological) characteristics. ...

As the 20th century approached, the anatomical works of Santiago Ramon y Cajal and Camillo Golgi laid the foundation for the study of individual neurons in the brain. Charles Scott Sherrington and Edgar Douglas Adrian furthered the study of neurons with the new techniques of electrodes and the electroencephalogram (EEG). Neurotransmitters were discovered and investigated by a number of scientists, including Otto Loewi, Henry Hallett Dale, Arvid Carlsson and many others. Later techniques, such as brain imaging allowed scientists to study the brain in living humans and animals in ways that their predecessors could not. (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Santiago Ramon y Cajal Santiago Ramón y Cajal (May 1, 1852 - October 17/18, 1934) was a famous Spanish histologist and father of neuroscience. ... Camillo Golgi Camillo Golgi ( July 7, 1843 - January 21, 1926) was an Italian physician. ... Sherrington is considered one of the fathers of neuroscience. ... Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian (born London, 30 November 1889, died London, 4 August 1977) was a British electrophysiologist and recipient of the 1932 Nobel Prize for Physiology, won jointly with Sir Charles Sherrington for work on the function of neurons. ... Alternative meanings: There is also an Electric-type Pokémon named Electrode. ... Electroencephalography is the neurophysiologic exploration of the electrical activity of the brain by the application of electrodes to the scalp. ... Sir Henry Hallett Dale (June 9, 1875 - July 23, 1968) was an English scientist. ... Arvid Carlsson (b. ... Brain imaging is a fairly recent discipline within medicine and neuroscience. ...

Your brain is controlled by men in white suits.

External links:

• Neuroscience for kids (http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html)
• Brain & Mind Magazine (http://www.cerebromente.org.br/)
• Human and Non-Human Primate Brain Atlases (http://brainmeta.com/brains.php)
• neuroscience wiki (http://purl.net/net/neurowiki)
• BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy (http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu)

Related topics

• Avian pallium
• Brain damage
• Coma
• Human brain
• Regions in the human brain
• The Memory-Prediction Framework
• Persistent vegetative state
• Traumatic brain injury

In the anatomy of animals, an avian pallium is the dorsal telencephalon of a birds brain. ... Brain damage or brain injury is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. ... For other meanings of the word coma, especially in astronomy, see coma (disambiguation) In medicine, a coma is a profound state of unconsciousness, which may result from a variety of conditions including intoxication (drug, alcohol or toxins), metabolic abnormalities (hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, ketoacidosis, etc. ... Picture of a human brain generated from MRI data In the anatomy of humans, the human brain is the center of the central nervous system and the primary control center for the peripheral nervous system. ... Human brain image constructed from MRI data Brain (neural tube) Brainstem (rhombencephalon),(mesencephalon) Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) Metencephalon pons fourth ventricle cerebellum cerebellar vermis cerebellar hemispheres anterior lobe posterior lobe flocculonodular lobe cerebellar nuclei fastigial nucleus globose nucleus emboliform nucleus dentate nucleus Myelencephalon medulla oblongata medullary pyramids Mesencephalon (midbrain) tectum inferior colliculi... The memory-prediction framework theory of the brain, created by Jeff Hawkins and described in his book On Intelligence, argues that the brain works mainly by the neocortexs ability to match sensory input to stored patterns and predict what will happen next. ... A persistent vegetative state (or PVS) is a condition of patients with severe brain damage in whom coma has progressed to a state of wakefulness without awareness. The term was introduced by two doctors in 1972 to describe a syndrome that seemed to have been made possible by medicines... This article needs cleanup. ...

References

• Bear, M.F., B.W. Conners, and M.A. Paradisa. 2001. Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain. Baltimore: Lippincott. ISBN 0781739446
• Butler, Ann B. 2000. "Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head." The Anatomical Record. 261:111-125.
• Martin, John H. 1996. Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 007138183X
• Kandel, Eric, James Schwartz, and Thomas Jessel. 2000. Principles of Neural Science. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0838577016
• Sala, Sergio Della, editor. 1999. Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain. J. Wiley & Sons, New York. ISBN 0471983039