NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Cervical carcinoma

Cervical cancer is a malignancy of the cervix. It may present with vaginal bleeding but symptoms may be absent until the cancer is in its advanced stages, which has made cervical cancer the focus of intense screening efforts utilizing the Pap smear. Most scientific studies have found that human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is responsible for virtually all cases of cervical cancer[1][2]. Treatment consists of surgery (including local excision) in early stages and chemotherapy and radiotherapy in advanced stages of the disease. An effective HPV vaccine against the two most common cancer-causing strains of HPV has recently been licenced in the US (see Vaccine section, below). These two HPV strains together are responsible for approximately 70% [3][4] of all cervical cancers. Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... The following codes are used with International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. ... The Mendelian Inheritance in Man project is a database that catalogues all the known diseases with a genetic component, and - when possible - links them to the relevant genes in the human genome. ... The Disease Bold textDatabase is a free website that provides information about the relationships between medical conditions, symptoms, and medications. ... MedlinePlus (medlineplus. ... eMedicine is an online clinical medical knowledge base that was founded in 1996. ... When normal cells are damaged or old they undergo apoptosis; cancer cells, however, avoid apoptosis. ... Schematic frontal view of female anatomy The cervix (from Latin neck) is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end of the vagina. ... One of the main problems involving the female reproductive organs is vaginal bleeding. ... The pap smear as we know it is an invention of Dr. Georgios Papanikolaou (1883-1962), an American of Greek birth, the father of cytopathology. ... HPV redirects here. ... A cardiothoracic surgeon performs a mitral valve replacement at the Fitzsimons Army Medical Center. ... Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ... Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). ... Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine research focuses on the prevention of diseases, such as cervical cancer and genital warts, caused by sexually transmitted human papillomaviruses. ...

Prevalence and awareness

According to the National Cancer Institute's 2005 Health Information National Trends survey, only 40% of American women surveyed had heard of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and only 20% had heard of its link to cervical cancer. ^[1] In 2006 an estimated 10,000 women in the United States will be diagnosed with this type of cancer and nearly 4,000 will die from it.[5] More then 60 types of HPVs are acknowledged to exist (depending on the reference, some sources indicate more than 200 subtypes) [6].[7]. Of these, fifteen HPV types are classified as high-risk types (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 68, 73, and 82), 3 are classified as probable high-risk types (26, 53, and 66); and 12 are classified as low-risk types (6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 61, 70, 72, 81, and CP6108).[8]. .[9] Types 16 and 18 are generally acknowledged to cause about 70% of the cancers. There are “low-risk” viruses which do not commonly turn into cancer and “high-risk” viruses that are most likely to develop into cervical cancer, although both can. Having several sexual partners is a major risk factor for developing HPV. Although most HPV infections clear up on their own, the infections could increase to major abnormalities or cervical cancer.[10] Doctors can test samples of cervical cells to determine types of HPV that may be present. In some cases, HPV clears up on its own, and in some, there were no signs until it was too late, and cervical cancer developed. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) is part of the United States Federal governments National Institutes of Health. ...

Signs and symptoms

The early stages of cervical cancer may be completely asymptomatic (Canavan & Doshi, 2000). Vaginal bleeding, contact bleeding or (rarely) a vaginal mass may indicate the presence of malignancy. Also, moderate pain during sexual intercourse and vaginal discharge are symptoms of cervical cancer. In advanced disease, metastases may be present in the abdomen, lungs or elsewhere. In medicine, a disease is asymptomatic when it is at a stage where the patient does not experience symptoms. ... One of the main problems involving the female reproductive organs is vaginal bleeding. ... Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ... The abdomen is a part of the body. ... Respiratory system The lungs flank the heart and great vessels in the chest cavity. ...

Symptoms of advanced cervical cancer may include: Loss of appetite, Weight loss, Fatigue, Pelvic pain, Back pain, Leg pain, Single swollen leg, Heavy bleeding from the vagina, Leaking of urine or feces from the vagina, and Bone fractures

The possibility to identify premalignant changes on a cervical smear has made screening the major cause for referral of women with possible cervical neoplasia. In many countries, women are advised to have a regular Pap smear to check for premalignant changes.[11] Recommendations for how often a Pap smear should be done vary from once a year to once every five years. If cervical cancer is detected early, it can be treated without impairing fertility. Consistently abnormal smears may be a reason for further diagnosis despite complete absence of symptoms. Screening, in medicine, is a strategy used to identify disease in an unsuspecting population. ... The pap smear as we know it is an invention of Dr. Georgios Papanikolaou (1883-1962), an American of Greek birth, the father of cytopathology. ...

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is made by doing a biopsy of the cervix, which often involves colposcopy, or a magnified visual inspection of the cervix aided by using an acetic acid (e.g. vinegar) solution to highlight abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix (the portio). A Pap smear is insufficient for the diagnosis. Many researchers recommend that since more than 99% of invasive cervical cancers worldwide contain human papillomavirus, HPV testing should be carried out together with routine cervical screening (Walboomers et al, 1999). However, given the prevalence of HPV (around 80% infection history among the sexually active population) others suggest that routine HPV testing would cause undue alarm to carriers. Brain biopsy A biopsy (in Greek: bios = life and opsy = look/appearance) is a medical test involving the removal of cells or tissues for examination. ... A colposcopy or colcoscopy is a diagnostic procedure in which a colposcope is utilized to examine an illuminated, magnified view of the cervix, vagina, and vulva. ... Acetic acid, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic chemical compound best recognized for giving vinegar its sour taste and pungent smell. ... The pap smear as we know it is an invention of Dr. Georgios Papanikolaou (1883-1962), an American of Greek birth, the father of cytopathology. ... HPV redirects here. ...

Further diagnostic procedures are loop electrical excision procedure (LEEP) and conisation, in which the inner lining of the cervix is removed to be examined pathologically. These are carried out if the biopsy confirms severe dysplasia. The loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP or LLETZ) is currently one of the most commonly used approaches to treating high grade cervical dysplasia discovered on colposcopic examination. ... Dysplasia (latin for bad form) is an abnormality in the appearance of cells indicative of an early step towards transformation into a neoplasia. ...

Histology

The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain specific extension of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. ... Biopsy of a highly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma of the mouth. ... The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain specific extension of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. ... Adenocarcinoma is a form of carcinoma that originates in glandular tissue. ... The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain specific extension of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. ... The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain specific extension of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. ... Small cell carcinoma is a type of carcinoma usually associated with the lung, though it can be associated with other topographies, such as in cervical cancer. ... The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain specific extension of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. ... The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain specific extension of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. ... Melanoma is a malignant tumor of melanocytes. ... This article is about lymphoma in humans. ...

Staging

Cervical cancer is staged by the FIGO staging system, which is based on clinical examination, rather than surgical findings. It allows only the following diagnostic tests to be used in determining the stage: palpation, inspection, colposcopy, endocervical curettage, hysteroscopy, cystoscopy, proctoscopy, intravenous urography, and X-ray examination of the lungs and skeleton, and cervical conization. The stage of a cancer is a descriptor (usually numbers I to IV) of how much the cancer has spread. ... Urography (also pyelography, intravenous urogram or IVU) is a medical examination procedure to check the function of the kidneys and its drain tubes (ureters). ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz...

The TNM staging system for cervical cancer is analogous to the FIGO stage. TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours (TNM) is the system developed and maintained by the International Union Against Cancer (UICC) to maintain consensus on one globally recognised standard for categorising cancer. ...

Note that the FIGO stage does not incorporate lymph node involvement in contrast to the TNM staging for most other cancers. Prostate under a microscope This image shows the microscopic glands of the prostate In animal tissue, stroma refers to the connective, non-functional supportive framework of a biological cell, tissue, or organ. ... Carcinoma in situ is present when a tumor has been detected that has the characteristics of malignancy but has not invaded other tissues. ... Hydronephrosis is distention and dilation of the renal pelvis, usually caused by obstruction of the free flow of urine from the kidney. ... Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ... TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours (TNM) is the system developed and maintained by the International Union Against Cancer (UICC) to maintain consensus on one globally recognised standard for categorising cancer. ...

For cases treated surgically, information obtained from the pathologist can be used in assigning a separate pathologic stage but is not to replace the original clinical stage.

For premalignant dysplastic changes, the CIN (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) grading is used. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, or CIN, is the abnormal growth of precancerous cells in the cervix. ...

Pathophysiology

The American Cancer Society provides the following list of risk factors for cervical cancer: human papillomavirus infection, smoking, HIV infection, chlamydia infection, dietary factors, oral contraceptives, multiple pregnancies, use of the hormonal drug diethylstilbestrol (DES) and a family history of cervical cancer. The American Cancer Society (ACS) is a medical organization with a corporate attitude in the United States. ... HPV redirects here. ... The cigarette is the most common method of smoking tobacco. ... Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections. ... Chlamydia is a common term for infection with any bacteria belonging to the phylum Chlamydiae. ... Oral contraceptives are chemicals taken by mouth to inhibit normal fertility. ... A pregnant woman near the end of her term Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more embryos or fetuses by female mammals, including humans, inside their bodies. ... Diethylstilbestrol (DES) is a drug, a synthetic nonsteroidal estrogen that was first synthesized in 1938. ... In medicine, a family history consists of information about disorders that a patients direct blood relatives have suffered from. ...

The presence of strains 16, 18 and 31 of human papillomavirus (HPV) is the prime risk factor for cervical cancer, and Walboomers et al. (1999) reported that the presence of HPV is a necessary condition for the development of cervical cancer. A virus cancer link with HPV has been found to trigger alterations in the cells of the cervix, leading to the development of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cancer. HPV redirects here. ... A risk factor is a variable associated with an increased risk of disease or infection but risk factors are not necessarily causal. ... The virus cancer link is the idea that some cancers are caused by viruses. ... Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, or CIN, is the abnormal growth of precancerous cells in the cervix. ...

HPV subtypes 16 and 18 introduce two genes called E6 and E7 which code for proteins that inhibit p53 and Rb, which are two important tumor suppressor genes in humans. The p53 gene product is involved in regulation of apoptosis (cell suicide), and Rb is responsible for halting the cell cycle at the G1-phase. When Rb function is impaired, the cell is allowed to progress to S-phase and complete mitosis, resulting in proliferation and hence neoplastic transformation. TP53 bound to a short DNA fragment. ... The Retinoblastoma protein, or pRb, is a tumor suppressor protein found to be dysfunctional in a number of types of cancer. ... A cell undergoing apoptosis. ... The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle (CDC), is the series of events in a eukaryotic cell between one cell division and the next. ...

Genital warts are caused by different HPV types, and are not related to cervical cancer. Genital warts or (or condyloma) is a very contagious sexually transmitted disease. ...

The medically accepted paradigm, officially endorsed by the American Cancer Society and other organizations, is that a patient must have been infected with HPV to develop cervical cancer, and is hence viewed as a sexually transmitted disease. Not all women infected with HPV also develop cervical cancer (Snijders et al, 2006). Use of condoms will not always prevent transmission. Likewise, HPV can be transmitted by skin-to-skin-contact with infected areas. HPV is thought to grow preferentially in the epithelium of the glans penis, and scrupulous washing and cleaning of this area may be preventative. The position on circumcision is controversial: some researchers argue that routine neonatal circumcision is an acceptable way of preventing various diseases (which include cervical carcinoma); others maintain that the benefits do not outweigh the risks. However, there has not been any definitive evidence to support this claim. The American Cancer Society (ACS) is a medical organization with a corporate attitude in the United States. ... Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) â€” also known as sexually transmissible diseases(STDs), venereal diseases (VD), or infrequently, social disease â€” are diseases or infections that have a significant probability of transmission between humans by means of sexual contact, vaginal intercourse, oral sex, or anal sex. ... A 67 m long condom on the Obelisk of Buenos Aires, Argentina, part of an awareness campaign for the 2005 World AIDS Day A condom is a device, usually made of latex, or more recently polyurethane, that is used during sexual intercourse. ... Types of epithelium This article discusses the epithelium, an animal anatomical structure. ... The glans penis is the sensitive erectile tip of the penis. ... Washing is one way of cleaning, namely with water and often some kind of soap or detergent. ... Cleanliness is the absence of dirt, including dust, stains and a bad smell. ... This article is about male circumcision. ...

Treatment

Microinvasive cancer (stage IA) is usually treated by hysterectomy (removal of the whole uterus including part of the vagina). For stage IA2, the Lymph nodes are removed as well. An alternative for patients who desire to maintain fertility is a local surgical procedure such as a LEEP or cone biopsy [14]. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The vagina, (from Latin, literally sheath or scabbard ) is the tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female placental mammals and marsupials, or to the cloaca in female birds, monotremes, and some reptiles. ... Lymph nodes are components of the lymphatic system. ... The loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP or LLETZ) is currently one of the most commonly used approaches to treating high grade cervical dysplasia discovered on colposcopic examination. ... Cervical conization (ICD-9 code 67. ...

If a cone biopsy was not able to produce clear margins[15], there is one possible option left for those with early stage cervical cancer who would like to preserve their fertility while treating their cervical cancer: a trachelectomy[16]. For those in stage I cervical cancer, which has not spread, this is a viable treatment option. It allows for the preservation of the ovaries and uterus while surgically removing the cervical cancer. This treatment option is not yet well known amongst doctors and is not yet considered a standard of care. [17] Furthermore, few doctors are trained in this fertility sparing surgical option. Even the most experienced surgeon won't be able to promise that this can be performed beforehand, as the extent of the spread of cervical cancer is unknown until surgical microscopic examination is completed. As a result, there is always the possibility for the need to convert to a hysterectomy if the surgeon is not able to microscopically confirm clear margins of cervical tissue once the patient is under general anesthesia in the operating room. This can only be done during the same operation if the patient has given consent for a possible hysterectomy prior to the operation. Due to the fact of the possible risk of cancer spread to the lymph nodes in stage 1b cancers and some stage 1a cancers, the surgeon may also need to remove some lymph nodes from around the womb. Once all the checks have been done and if all is well, the cervix will be stitched closed with a cerclage.[18] This will allow for menstruation and fertilization but not dilation for a vaginal delivery, therefore requiring any future births are delivered by cesarean section. A radical trachelectomy is a smaller operation than hysterectomy, but more importantly allows for the preservation of fertility. This operation can also be performed vaginally [19]instead of abdominally [20], however there are conflicting opinions as to which approach is better. [21] A radical abdominal trachelectomy with lymphadenecectomy usually only requires a 2- to 3-day hospital stay with most women recovering very quickly (approximately 6 weeks). Complications are generally uncommon, although women who are able to conceive after surgery are prone to preterm labor or possible late miscarriage.[22] It is generally recommended to wait at least one year before attempting to become pregnant after surgery.[23] Recurrence in the residual cervix is a very rare event as long as the cancer has been cleared with the trachelectomy.[24] Even though recurrence is rare, it is generally recommended for patients to practice vigilant prevention and follow up care including pap screenings/colposcopy, with biopies of the remaining lower uterine segment as needed (every 3-4 months for at least 5 years) to monitor for any recurrance in addition to minimizing any new exposures to HPV through safe sex practices until one is actively trying to conceive. Cervical cerclage (tracheloplasty) is used for the treatment of cervical incompetence, a condition where the cervix has become slightly open and there is a risk of miscarriage because it may not remain closed throughout pregnancy. ... A colposcopy or colcoscopy is a diagnostic procedure in which a colposcope is utilized to examine an illuminated, magnified view of the cervix, vagina, and vulva. ...

Early stages (IB1 and IIA less than 4 cm) can be treated with radical hysterectomy with removal of the lymph nodes or radiation therapy. Radiation therapy is given as external beam radiotherapy to the pelvis and brachytherapy (internal radiation). For patients treated with surgery who have high risk features found on pathologic examination, radiation therapy with or without chemotherapy is given in order to reduce the risk of relapse. Clinac 2100 C100 accelerator Radiation therapy (or Radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). ... Brachytherapy for prostate cancer is administered using seeds, small radioactive rods implanted directly into the tumour. ...

Larger early stage tumors (IB2 and IIA more than 4 cm) may be treated with radiation therapy and cisplatin-based chemotherapy, hysterectomy (which then usually requires adjuvant radiation therapy), or cisplatin chemotherapy followed by hysterectomy. Cisplatin, cisplatinum or cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (CDDP) is a platinum-based chemotherapy drug used to treat various types of cancers, including sarcomas, some carcinomas (e. ... In medicine, adjuvants are agents which modify the effect of other agents while having few if any direct effects when given by themselves. ...

Advanced stage tumors (IIB-IVA) are treated with radiation therapy and cisplatin-based chemotherapy. Cisplatin, cisplatinum or cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (CDDP) is a platinum-based chemotherapy drug used to treat various types of cancers, including sarcomas, some carcinomas (e. ...

On June 15, 2006 Food and Drug Administration has approved [25] uses combination of two chemotherapy drugs, Hycamtin and cisplatin for women with late-stage (IVB) cervical cancer treatment. Combination treatment has significant risk of neutropenia, anemia, and thrombocytopenia side effects. Hycamtin is manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline. June 15 is the 166th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (167th in leap years), with 199 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Topotecan (HycamtinÂ®) is a chemotherapy agent that is a topoisomerase 1 inhibitor. ... Cisplatin, cisplatinum or cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (CDDP) is a platinum-based chemotherapy drug used to treat various types of cancers, including sarcomas, some carcinomas (e. ... It has been suggested that Agranulocytosis be merged into this article or section. ... Anemia (AmE) or anaemia (BrE), from the Greek () meaning without blood, refers to a deficiency of red blood cells (RBCs) and/or hemoglobin. ... Thrombocytopenia (or -paenia, or thrombopenia in short) is the presence of relatively few platelets in blood. ...

Epidemiology

Worldwide, cervical cancer is the fifth most frequent cancer in women, when ordered by number of deaths [26]. Cervical cancer affects about 16 per 100,000 women per year and causes death in about 9 per 100,000 per year.

In the United States, however, cervical cancer is only the 8th most common cancer of women. About 12,800 women in the United States are diagnosed with cervical cancer and about 4,800 die each year (Canavan & Doshi, 2000). Among gynecological cancers it ranks behind endometrial cancer and ovarian cancer. The incidence and mortality figure for the U.S. are about half that of the rest of the world, a difference which can be attributed in part to the success of screening with the Pap smear.[27] Endometrial cancer involves cancerous growth of the endometrium (lining of the uterus). ... Ovarian cancer is a malignant ovarian neoplasm (an abnormal growth located on the ovaries). ... The pap smear as we know it is an invention of Dr. Georgios Papanikolaou (1883-1962), an American of Greek birth, the father of cytopathology. ...

In Great Britain, the incidence is inline with that of the rest of Northern Europe with an annual incidence of 8.8/100,000 (2001) and an annual mortality of 2.8/100,000 (2003)(Cancer Research UK Cervical cancer statistics for the UK). With a 42% reduction from 1988-1997 the NHS implemented screening programme has been highly succesful, screening the highest risk age group (25-49 years) every 3 years, and those ages 50-64 every 5 years.

A study published in 2002 (Castellsagué et al) reports that male circumcision can reduce the risk of penile human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in the man, and as a result that of cervical cancer in his female partner. The authors do state that "it would not make sense to promote circumcision as a way to control cervical cancer in the United States, where Pap smears usually detect it at a treatable stage". In contrast to this claim, Menczer (2004) quotes research that male circumcision probably does not contribute to a lower incidence of cervical cancer in Jewish populations.

One study suggests that prostaglandin in semen may fuel the growth of cervical and uterine tumours and that affected women might benefit from the use of condoms.^[2]^[3] Chemical structure of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). ... Horse semen being collected for breeding purposes. ... A 67 m long condom on the Obelisk of Buenos Aires, Argentina, part of an awareness campaign for the 2005 World AIDS Day A condom is a device, usually made of latex, or more recently polyurethane, that is used during sexual intercourse. ...

History

Epidemiologists working in the early 20th century noted that: Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine. ...

This led to the deduction that cervical cancer could be caused by a sexually transmitted agent. Initial research in the 1950s and 1960s put the blame on smegma (e.g. Heins et al 1958), but it wasn't until the 1970s that human papillomavirus (HPV) was identified. A description by electron microcopy was given earlier in 1949 and HPV-DNA was identified in 1963. It has since been demonstrated that HPV is implicated in virtually all cervical cancers[29]. Specific viral subtypes implicated are HPV 16, 18, 31 and 45. A sex worker in Germany A sex worker is a person who earns money by providing sexual services. ... Nun in cloister, 1930; photograph by Doris Ulmann A nun is a woman who has taken special vows committing her to a religious life. ... Smegma, a transliteration of the Greek word ÏƒÎ¼Î®Î³Î¼Î± for soap, is a combination of exfoliated (shed) epithelial cells, transudated skin oils, moisture, and bacteria that can accumulate under the foreskin of males and within the vulva of females. ... HPV redirects here. ...

Vaccine

Lead by Professor Ian Frazer, Merck & Co. has developed a vaccine against four strains of HPV (6,11,16,18), called Gardasil™. It is now on the market after receiving Food and Drug Administration approval [30] on June 8, 2006. Gardasil is targeted at girls and women of age 9 to 26 because the vaccine only works if given before infection occurs; therefore, public health workers are targeting girls before they begin having sex. The use of the vaccine in men to prevent genital warts and interrupt transmission to women is initially considered only a secondary market. The high cost of this vaccine has been a cause for concern. Gardasil has received EU approval.^[4] Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine research focuses on the prevention of diseases, such as cervical cancer and genital warts, caused by sexually transmitted human papillomaviruses. ... Ian Frazer is an Australian immunologist, best known for his work on the development of a cervical cancer vaccine, which works by protecting women from Human papillomavirus (HPV). ... It has been suggested that Rosetta Biosoftware be merged into this article or section. ... Gardasil is a vaccine against certain types of the human papillomavirus (HPV), created by researchers Dr. Albert Bennet Jenson and Dr. Shin-je Ghim at the University of Louisville in 2006, following on research done by Professor Ian Frazer of Australia in conjunction with Australian biomedical company, CSL Limited. ... June 8 is the 159th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (160th in leap years), with 206 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ...

Glaxosmithkline has developed a vaccine called Cervarix™ which has been shown to be 100% effective in preventing HPV strains 16 and 18 and is 100% effective for more than four years[31]. The two HPV strains (16 and 18) together cause about 70% of cervical cancer cases. Cervarix should be approved by year's end.^[5]^[6] GlaxoSmithKline plc (LSE: GSK NYSE: GSK) is a British based pharmaceutical, biologicals, and healthcare company. ... Cervarix is an investigational vaccine against certain sexually-transmitted human papillomavirus (HPV) types. ...

Notes

Current MRC logo The Medical Research Council (MRC) is a UK organisation dedicated to promot[ing] the balanced development of medical and related biological research in the UK. // Organisation The MRC is one of eight Research Councils and is answerable to, although politically independent from, the Office of Science and...

References

The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society. ... The Lancet is one of the oldest and most respected peer-reviewed medical journals in the world, published weekly by Elsevier, part of Reed Elsevier. ...

External links

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Pathology: tumors (and related structures), cancer, and oncology (C00-D48)

Benign - Premalignant - Carcinoma in situ - Malignant Pathology (from Greek pathos, feeling, pain, suffering; and logos, study of; see also -ology) is the study of the processes underlying disease and other forms of illness, harmful abnormality, or dysfunction. ... Tumor or tumour literally means swelling, and is sometimes still used with that meaning. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ... Oncology is the medical subspecialty dealing with the study and treatment of cancer. ... Benign can refer to any medical condition which, untreated or with symptomatic therapy, will not become life-threatening. ... A premalignant condition is a disease, syndrome, or finding that, if left untreated, may lead to cancer. ... Carcinoma in situ is present when a tumor has been detected that has the characteristics of malignancy but has not invaded other tissues. ... In medicine, malignant is a clinical term that is used to describe a clinical course that progresses rapidly to death. ...

Topography: Anus - Bladder - Bile duct - Bone - Brain - Breast - Cervix - Colon/rectum - Duodenum - Endometrium - Esophagus - Eye - Gallbladder - Head/Neck - Liver - Larynx - Lung - Mouth - Pancreas - Penis - Prostate - Kidney - Ovaries - Skin - Stomach - Testicles - Thyroid Anal cancer is a distinct entity from the more common colorectal cancer. ... Bladder cancer refers to any of several types of malignant growths of the urinary bladder. ... // [edit] Introduction Cholangiocarcinoma is an adenocarcinoma of the biliary duct system. ... An arm bone tumor Bone tumor is an inexact term, which can be used for both benign and malignant abnormal growths found in bone, but is most commonly used for primary tumors of bone, such as osteosarcoma (or osteoma). ... A brain tumor is any intracranial tumor created by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division, normally either found in the brain itself (neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells), lymphatic tissue, blood vessels), in the cranial nerves (myelin-producing Schwann cells), in the brain envelopes (meninges), skull, pituitary and pineal gland... Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ... Colorectal cancer, also called colon cancer or bowel cancer, includes cancerous growths in the colon, rectum and appendix. ... This article needs more context around or a better explanation of technical details to make it more accessible to general readers and technical readers outside the specialty, without removing technical details. ... Endometrial cancer involves cancerous growth of the endometrium (lining of the uterus). ... Esophageal cancer is malignancy of the esophagus. ... Ocular oncology is branch of medicine dealing with tumors relating to the eye and its adnexa. ... Bold textA more uncommon cancer predominate in females, if found early on before symptoms, can be cured by removing Gallbladder, most often it is found after symptoms occur (abdominal pain, Jaundice) and has spread to other organs such as liver and the outlook at this point is poor. ... Head and neck cancers are malignant growths originating in the lip and oral cavity (mouth), nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, thyroid, paranasal sinuses, salivary glands and cervical lymph nodes of the neck. ... Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC, also called hepatoma) is a primary malignancy (cancer) of the liver. ... Cancer of the larynx also may be called laryngeal cancer. ... Lung cancer is the malignant transformation and expansion of lung tissue, and is the most lethal of all cancers worldwide, responsible for up to 3 million deaths annually. ... Oral cancer is any cancerous tissue growth located in the mouth. ... Pancreatic cancer (also called cancer of the pancreas) is a malignant tumour within the pancreatic gland. ... Penile cancer is a malignant growth found on the skin or in the tissues of the penis, usually originating in the glans and/or foreskin. ... Prostate cancer is a disease in which cancer develops in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system. ... Renal cell carcinoma, also known by a gurnistical tumor, is the most common form of kidney cancer arising from the renal tubule. ... Ovarian cancer is a malignant ovarian neoplasm (an abnormal growth located on the ovaries). ... Skin cancer is a malignant growth on the skin, which can have many causes, including repeated severe sunburn or long-term exposure to the sun. ... Stomach cancer (also called gastric cancer) can develop in any part of the stomach and may spread throughout the stomach and to other organs; particularly the esophagus and the small intestine. ... Testicular cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the testicles (singular testis), a part of the male reproductive system. ...

Morphology: Papilloma/carcinoma - Choriocarcinoma - Adenoma/adenocarcinoma - Soft tissue sarcoma - Melanoma - Fibroma/fibrosarcoma - Metastasis - Lipoma/liposarcoma - Leiomyoma/leiomyosarcoma - Rhabdomyoma/rhabdomyosarcoma - Mesothelioma - Angioma/angiosarcoma - Osteoma/osteosarcoma - Chondroma/chondrosarcoma - Glioma - Lymphoma/leukemia Papilloma refers to a benign epithelial tumor. ... In medicine, carcinoma apanting dog named rufis It is malignant by definition: carcinomas invade surrounding tissues and organs, and may spread to lymph nodes and distal sites (metastasis). ... Choriocarcinoma is a rare cancer of the placenta, curable by chemotherapy. ... Adenoma refers to a collection of growths (-oma) of glandular origin. ... Adenocarcinoma is a form of carcinoma that originates in glandular tissue. ... Malignant (cancerous) tumors that develop in soft tissue are called sarcomas, a term that comes from a Greek word meaning fleshy growth. ... Melanoma is a malignant tumor of melanocytes. ... Soft Fibroma (fibroma molle). ... Fibrosarcoma (fibroblastic sarcoma) is a malignant tumor derived from fibrous connective tissue and characterized by immature proliferating fibroblasts or undifferentiated anaplastic spindle cells. ... Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ... A lipoma is a common, benign tumor composed of fatty tissue. ... Liposarcoma is a malignant tumor that arises in fat cells in deep soft tissue, such as that inside the thigh or in the retroperitoneum. ... A leiomyoma (plural is leiomyomata) is a benign smooth muscle neoplasm that is not premalignant. ... Leiomyosarcoma is a type of sarcoma which is a neoplasm of smooth muscle. ... A rhabdomyoma is a benign tumor of muscle. ... A rhabdomyosarcoma is a type of cancer, specifically a sarcoma (cancer of connective tissues), in which the cancer cells are thought to arise from skeletal muscle progenitors. ... Angiomas are benign tumors that are made up of small blood vessels. ... Angiosarcoma is a rare, malignant tumor consisting of endothelial and fibroblastic tissue that proliferates and eventually surrounds vascular channels. ... An osteoma is a new piece of bone growing on another piece, typically the skull. ... Osteosarcoma is a common primary bone cancer. ... A chondroma is a benign cartilaginous tumor, which is encapsulated with a lobular growing pattern. ... A chondrosarcoma is a cancer of the cartilage. ... A glioma is a type of primary central nervous system (CNS) tumor that arises from glial cells. ... This article is about lymphoma in humans. ... Leukemia or leukaemia (see spelling differences) is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow and is characterized by an abnormal proliferation (production by multiplication) of blood cells, usually white blood cells (leukocytes). ...

Treatment: Surgery - Chemotherapy - Radiation therapy - Immunotherapy - Experimental cancer treatment A cardiothoracic surgeon performs a mitral valve replacement at the Fitzsimons Army Medical Center. ... Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ... Clinac 2100 C100 accelerator Radiation therapy (or Radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). ... Cancer Immunotherapy is the use of monoclonal antibodies (-mab) to specifically target cells. ... Experimental cancer treatments are medical therapies intended or claimed to treat cancer (see also tumor) by improving on, supplementing or replacing conventional methods (surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and immunotherapy). ...

Related structures: Cyst - Dysplasia - Hamartoma - Neoplasia - Nodule - Polyp - Pseudocyst A cyst is a closed sac having a distinct membrane and developing abnormally in a cavity or structure of the body. ... Dysplasia (latin for bad form) is an abnormality in the appearance of cells indicative of an early step towards transformation into a neoplasia. ... A hamartoma is a common benign tumor in an organ composed of tissue elements normally found at that site but that are growing in a disorganized mass. ... Neoplasia (new growth in Greek) is abnormal, disorganized growth in a tissue or organ, usually forming a distinct mass. ... In medicine, a nodule refers to a small aggregation of cells. ... Polyp of sigmoid colon as revealed by colonoscopy. ... A pseudocyst is a pathological collection of fluid. ...

Misc: Tumor suppressor genes/oncogenes - Staging/grading - Carcinogenesis/metastasis - Carcinogen - Research - Paraneoplastic phenomenon - ICD-O - List of oncology-related terms A tumor suppressor gene is a gene that reduces the probability that a cell in a multicellular organism will turn into a tumor cell. ... An oncogene is a modified gene that increases the malignancy of a tumor cell. ... The stage of a cancer is a descriptor (usually numbers I to IV) of how much the cancer has spread. ... In pathology, Grading is a measure of the progress of tumors. ... Cancers are caused by a series of mutations. ... Metastasis (Greek: change of the state) is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. ... The term carcinogen refers to any substance, radionuclide or radiation which is an agent directly involved in the promotion of cancer or in the facilitation of its propagation. ... Cancer research is research into cancer in order to identify causes and develop strategies for prevention, diagnosis, treatments and cure. ... A paraneoplastic phenomenon is a disease or symptom that is the consequence of the presence of cancer in the body, but is not due to the local presence of cancer cells. ... The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain specific extension of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. ... This is a list of terms related to oncology. ...

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