Cetacean intelligence denotes the cognitive capabilities of the cetacean order of mammals and especially the various species of dolphin. Cetaceans include whales, porpoises, and dolphins, and while all are broadly considered intelligent, dolphins have generated the most attention as their capabilities appear to be of a different order than that of their relatives, who, it should be noted, are much less observed, and thus, more difficult to study. Suborders Mysticeti Odontoceti (see text) The order Cetacea includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. ... For other uses, see Dolphin (disambiguation). ... This article is about the animal. ... Genera Neophocaena Phocoena - Harbor porpoise Phocoenoides - Dalls porpoise The porpoises are small cetaceans of the family Phocoenidae; they are related to whales and dolphins. ... Intelligence is a general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language, and learn. ...

Conclusions about the nature and magnitude of dolphin intelligence have not yet been reached. There are many different species of dolphin (see the cetacea article for a full list) and generalisations can be easily misapplied. There are only a select few species that live up to the ideal of dolphin intelligence. Suborders Mysticeti Odontoceti Archaeoceti (extinct) (see text for families) The order Cetacea (IPA: , L. cetus, whale) includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. ...

Observe the size of the bottlenose dolphin's brain (1500-1700 g, 0.9% of body weight) compared with those of other animals, particularly the human's brain (1300-1400 g, 2.1% of body weight), the human being an animal of comparable size.

Image File history File linksMetadata Brains. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Brains. ...

Brain size

Brain size is a rudimentary indicator of the intelligence of a brain, though many other factors affect such intelligence. Higher ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks.[1] Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain sizes scale as approximately the 2/3 or 3/4 power of the body mass;^[1] comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an "encephalization quotient" (EQ) that can be used as another indication of the animal's intelligence. An allometric law describes the relationship between two attributes of living organisms, and is usually expressed as a power-law: or in a logarithmic form: where is the scaling exponent of the law. ...

• Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus) have the largest brain mass of any extant animal, averaging 7.8kg in mature males.^[2]
• Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) have an absolute brain mass of 1500-1700 grams. This is slightly greater than that of humans (1300-1400 grams) and about four times that of chimpanzees (400 grams).^[3]
• The brain to body mass ratio in dolphins is less than half that of humans: 0.9% versus 2.1%. This comparison appears more favourable if we leave aside the large amount of blubber (15-20% of mass) dolphins require for insulation. Humans have the highest brain-to-body ratio but there is debate whether dolphins or the treeshrew^[4] have the highest animal brain-to-body ratio.
• The encephalization quotient varies widely between species. The Orca/Killer whale has an EQ of 2.57^[5] whereas the Bottlenose dolphin has the highest EQ of 5.31. This is below the human EQ of 7.44, but above chimpanzees at 2.49, dogs at 1.17, cats at 1.00, and mice at 0.50.^[6]
• At birth, Bottlenose dolphins have a brain mass 42.5% that of an adult dolphin, in comparison with 25% for human newborns. By eighteen months, the brain mass of a Bottlenose Dolphin is roughly 80% of that of an adult. Human beings generally do not achieve this figure until the age of three or four (ibid). The higher the weight at birth, the more the young animal knows instinctively; the lower it is, the more it has to learn.^{[citation needed]}

Binomial name Linnaeus, 1758 Sperm whale range (in blue) The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) is the largest of all toothed whales and is the largest toothed animal alive, with adult males measuring up to 20. ... Binomial name Montagu, 1821 Bottlenose Dolphin range (in blue) The Bottlenose Dolphin is one of the most common and well-known dolphins. ... Brain to body mass ratio (also known as the Encephalization Quotient or EQ) is a rough estimate of the possible intelligence of an organism. ... Remains of seventeenth century blubber cauldrons at the abandoned Dutch settlement of Smeerenburg in Svalbard, Norway This article is about the body tissue. ... Families Tupaiidae Ptilocercidae The treeshrews are small mammals native to the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. ... Brain to body mass ratio (also known as the Encephalisation Quotient) is a method to quickly get a rough estimate of the possible intelligence of an organism. ...

Brain structure

Comparing a land-based species and water-based species introduces a further complication because their habitats make hugely differing demands and their brain evolution has diverged from land mammals quite a long time ago.

For example, dolphins' cerebral cortex is 40% larger than human beings', with sulci and gyri ("wrinkles") of near equivalent complexity^[7] with a similarly developed frontal lobe (ibid) however, for example, "no patterns of cellular distribution, nuclear subdivision, or cellular morphology indicate specialization of the LC (coeruleus complex)" despite the large absolute brain size and unihemispheric sleep phenomenology of cetaceans.^[8] Moreover, it is generally agreed that the growth of the neocortex, both absolutely and relative to the rest of the brain, during human evolution, has been responsible for the evolution of intelligence, however defined. In most mammals the neocortex has six layers, and its different functional areas (vision, hearing, etc) are sharply differentiated. The cetacean neocortex, on the other hand, has only five layers,^[9] and there is little differentiation of outer layers according to function. The neocortex of the cetacean brain has a highly developed layer I and VI, which is a pattern that has been labeled "archaic" or phylogenetically primitive and superficially similar to that of hedgehogs.^{[citation needed]} Therefore the evolutionary development of the cetacean brain has taken a different route than that of advanced terrestrial ones. For other uses, see Cortex. ... The frontal lobe is an area in the brain of mammals. ... The Locus ceruleus, also spelled locus caeruleus or locus coeruleus (Latin for the blue spot), is a nucleus in the brain stem responsible for physiological responses to stress and panic. ... The neocortex (Latin for new bark or new rind) is a part of the brain of mammals. ... The neocortex (Latin for new bark or new rind) is a part of the brain of mammals. ... In biology, phylogenetics (Greek: phylon = tribe, race and genetikos = relative to birth, from genesis = birth) is the study of evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms (e. ...

All sleeping mammals, including dolphins, go through a stage known as REM sleep.^[10] Unlike terrestrial mammals, dolphin brains contain a paralimbic lobe, which may possibly be used for sensory processing. The dolphin is a voluntary breather, even in sleep, with the result that veterinary anaesthesia of dolphins is impossible, as it would result in asphyxiation. Ridgway reports that EEGs show alternating hemispheric asymmetry in slow waves during sleep, with occasional sleep-like waves from both hemispheres.^{[citation needed]} This result has been interpreted to mean that dolphins sleep only one hemisphere of their brain at a time, possibly to control their voluntary respiration system or to be vigilant for predators. This is also given as explanation for the large size of brain. Rapid eye movement (REM) is the stage of sleep during which the most vivid (though not all) dreams occur. ... Terrestrial animals are animals that live predominantly or entirely on land, as compared with aquatic animals, which live predominantly or entirely in the water (e. ... Asphyxia is a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body. ...

Dolphin brain stem transmission time is faster than that normally found in humans, and is roughly equivalent to the speed found in rats. As echo-location is the dolphin's primary means of sensing its environment -- analogous to eyes in primates -- and since sound travels four and a half times faster in water than in air, scientists speculate that the faster brain stem transmission time, and perhaps the paralimbic lobe as well, support speedy processing of sound. The dolphin's dependence on speedy sound processing is evident in the structure of its brain: its neural area devoted to visual imaging is only about one-tenth that of the human brain, while the area devoted to acoustical imaging is about 10 times that of the human brain. (This is unsurprising: primate brains devote far more volume to visual processing than those of almost any other animal, and human brains more than other primates.) Sensory experiments suggest a high degree of cross-modal integration in the processing of shapes between echolocative and visual areas of the brain. Unlike the case of the human brain, the cetacean optic chiasm is completely crossed, and there is behavioral evidence for hemispheric dominance for vision. The brain stem is the lower part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal cord. ... Species 50 species; see text *Several subfamilies of Muroids include animals called rats. ... Families 15, See classification A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans. ... Families 15, See classification A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans. ... Visual pathway with optic chiasm circled The optic chiasm (from the Greek χλαζειν to mark with an X, after the letter Χ chi) is the part of the brain where the optic nerves partially cross, those parts of the right eye which see things on the right side being connected to the...

Problem-solving ability

There is no universally agreed definition of "intelligence." However, a commonly used definition is "the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience." This definition is separate from social traits or the ability to learn tricks (which can be done through conditioning), which many laymen confuse with animal intelligence. Some research shows that dolphins do exceptionally well in this aspect indicating very high intelligence, even surpassing the intelligence level of a chimpanzee, which is generally believed to be the highest amongst non-human animals ^[11]. Dolphins also seem capable of discriminating between numbers, which is a highly abstract ability ^[12]. However, many scientists now tend to rank dolphins about the level of elephants in "intelligence" tests and say that dolphins haven't shown any unusual talent with problem solving compared with the other animals classed with very high intelligence^[13]. For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Reason (disambiguation). ... Learned redirects here. ... Look up Experience in Wiktionary, the free dictionary This article discusses the general concept of experience. ... Genera and Species Loxodonta Loxodonta cyclotis Loxodonta africana Elephas Elephas maximus Elephas antiquus † Elephas beyeri † Elephas celebensis † Elephas cypriotes † Elephas ekorensis † Elephas falconeri † Elephas iolensis † Elephas planifrons † Elephas platycephalus † Elephas recki † Stegodon † Mammuthus † Elephantidae (the elephants) is a family of pachyderm, and the only remaining family in the order Proboscidea...

Behavior

See also: Ethology and Whale behaviour

Researching the behaviour of dolphins in the wild is a difficult task. However, several researchers have examined the social behaviour of dolphins and tried to extract an understanding of the level of communication between individuals, which in turn is interpreted as a measure of intelligence. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Whales exhibit various types of behaviour when they surface. ...

Pod characteristics

Dolphin group sizes vary quite dramatically. River dolphins usually congregate in fairly small groups from 6 to 12 in number or, in some species, singly or in pairs. Researchers believe that the individuals in these small groups may well know and recognise one another.^{[citation needed]} Other species such as the oceanic Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, Heaviside's Dolphin and Spinner Dolphin travel in large groups of hundreds of individuals. It is unknown whether every member of the group is acquainted with every other. However, there is no doubt that such large packs can act as a single cohesive unit - observations show that if an unexpected disturbance, such as a shark approach, occurs from the flank or from beneath the group, the group moves in near-unison to avoid the threat. This means that the dolphins must be aware not only of their next-door neighbours but also of other individuals nearby - in a similar manner to which humans perform "Audience waves". This is achieved by sight, and possibly also echolocation. One speculative hypothesis proposed by Jerison (1986) is that members of a pack of dolphins are able to share echolocation results with each other to create a better understanding of their surroundings.^{[citation needed]} Families See text River dolphins are four species of dolphin which reside in freshwater rivers and estuaries. ... Binomial name Stenella attenuata (Gray, 1846) Pantropical Spotted Dolphin range The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin (Stenella attenuata) is a species of dolphin found in all the worlds temperate and tropical oceans. ... Binomial name Cephalorhynchus heavisidii Gray, 1828 Heavisides Dolphin range Heavisides Dolphin (Cephalorhynchus heavisidii) is a small dolphin that is found off the coast of Namibia and the west coast of South Africa. ... Binomial name (Gray, 1828) Spinner Dolphin range The Spinner Dolphin (Stenella longirostris) is a small dolphin found in off-shore tropical waters around the world. ... Stadium crowd performing the wave at the Confederations Cup 2005 in Frankfurt A packed crowd in a stadium does the wave (in some places outside of North America known as the Mexican wave) when a wave is created in the crowd by successive groups of spectators briefly standing and raising...

Resident orcas living in British Columbia, Canada, and Washington, United States live in extremely stable family groups. The basis of this social structure is the matriline, consisting of a mother and her offspring, who travel with her for life. Male orcas never leave their mother's pod, while female offspring may branch off to form their own matriline if they have many offspring of their own. Males have a particularly strong bond with their mother, and travel with them their entire lives, which can exceed 50 years. It is interesting behaviour, as it may seem that there would be no benefit from this except perhaps in hunting techniques, although they could join other groups to hunt. There are two interesting examples of this familial bond in males. Two male sons, identified as A38 and A39, constantly accompany their mother A30, despite that she needs no protection and they can all hunt by themselves, and rarely leave her side. Researchers have noted that if one son does wander off, one always remains with the mother. Another example are the brothers A32, A37 and A46, whose mother (A36) died. Instead of the family disbanding, the three brothers remain constantly together. Binomial name Orcinus orca Linnaeus, 1758 Orca range (in blue) The Orca or Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) is the largest species of the oceanic dolphin family (Delphinidae). ...

Relationships in the orca population can be discovered through their vocalizations. Matrilines who share a common ancestor from only a few generations back share mostly the same dialect, making up a pod. Pods who share some calls indicate a common ancestor from many generations back, and make up a clan. Interestingly, the orcas use these dialects to avoid in-breeding. They mate outside the clan, which is determined by the different vocalizations. On one occasion, an orca's mother and father were determined to be in the same clan, although in different pods.

In bottlenose dolphin studies by Wells in Sarasota, Florida, and Smolker in Shark Bay, Australia, females in a community are all linked either directly or through a mutual association in an overall social structure known as fission-fusion. Groups of the strongest association are known as "bands", and their composition can remain stable over years. There is some genetic evidence that band members may be related, but these bands are not necessarily limited to a single matrilineal line. There is no evidence that bands compete with each other. In the same research areas, as well as in Moray Firth, Scotland, males form strong associations of two to three individuals, with a coefficient of association between 70 and 100. These groups of males are known as "alliances", and members often display synchronous behaviours such as respiration, jumping, and breaching. Alliance composition is stable on the order of tens of years, and may provide a benefit for the acquisition of females for mating. Binomial name Montagu, 1821 Bottlenose Dolphin range (in blue) The Bottlenose Dolphin is one of the most common and well-known dolphins. ... Sarasota is a city located in Sarasota County, Florida. ... This article is about the U.S. State of Florida. ... Shark Bay is a world heritage site and a locality in the Gascoyne region of Western Australia. ... The Moray Firth is a roughly triangular area of the North Sea, north and east of Inverness. ... This article is about the country. ...

Complex play

Dolphins are known to engage in complex play behaviour, which includes such things as producing stable underwater toroidal air-core vortex rings or "bubble rings".^[14] There are two main methods of bubble ring production: rapid puffing of a burst of air into the water and allowing it to rise to the surface, forming a ring; or swimming repeatedly in a circle and then stopping to inject air into the helical vortex currents thus formed. The dolphin will often then examine its creation visually and with sonar. They also appear to enjoy biting the vortex-rings they've created, so that they burst into many separate normal bubbles and then rise quickly to the surface.^[15] Certain whales are also known to produce bubble rings, or even bubble-nets for the purpose of foraging. Many dolphin species are also known for playing by riding in waves, whether natural waves near the shoreline in a method akin to human "body-surfing", or within the waves induced by the bow of a moving boat in a behavior known as bow-riding. A toroid is a doughnut-shaped object whose surface is a torus. ... Vortex created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by coloured smoke A vortex (pl. ... This article is about the shape. ...

Creative behaviour

Not only have dolphins exhibited the ability to learn complex tricks, they have also demonstrated the ability to produce creative responses. This was studied by Karen Pryor in the mid-sixties at Sea Life Park in Hawaii, and was published as "The Creative Porpoise: Training for Novel Behaviour" in 1969. The two test subjects were two rough-toothed dolphins (Steno bredanensis), called Malia (a regular show performer at Sea Life Park) and Hou (a research subject at adjacent Oceanic Institute). The experiment tested when and whether the dolphins would identify that they were being rewarded (by fish) for originality in behaviour and was highly successful. However, the test is unscientific since it only involved a small number (2) of dolphins. Karen Pryor Karen Pryor is an author and a scientist with an international reputation in the fields of marine mammal biology and behavioral psychology. ... Binomial name Steno bredanensis Lesson, 1828 Rough-toothed Dolphin range The Rough-toothed Dolphin (Steno bredanensis) is a fairly large dolphin that can be found in deep warm and tropical waters around the world. ...

Starting with the dolphin named Malia, the methodology of the experiment was to choose a particular behavior exhibited by her each day and reward each display of that behavior throughout the day's session. At the start of each new day Malia would present the prior day's behavior, but only when a new behavior was exhibited was a reward given. All behaviors exhibited were, at least for a time, known behaviors of dolphins. At approximately the two week mark Malia apparently exhausted "normal" behaviors and began to repeat performances. This was met without reward.^[16]

According to Pryor the dolphin became almost despondent. However, at the sixteenth session following no novel behavior, the researchers were presented with a flip they had never seen before. This was reinforced.^[16] As related by Pryor, following the new display: "instead of offering that again she offered a tail swipe we'd never seen; we reinforced that. She began offering us all kinds of behavior that we hadn't seen in such a mad flurry that finally we could hardly choose what to throw fish at..."^[16]

The second test subject, Hou, took thirty-three sessions to reach the same stage. On each occasion the experiment was stopped when the variability of dolphin behaviour became too complex to make further positive reinforcement meaningful.

The same experiment was repeated with humans, and it took the volunteers about the same length of time to figure out what was being asked of them. After an initial period of frustration or anger, the humans realised they were being rewarded for novel behaviour. In dolphins this realisation produced excitement and more and more novel behaviours - in humans it mostly just produced relief.^[17]

Captive orcas have often displayed interesting responses when they get 'bored' with activities. For instance, when Dr. Paul Spong worked with the orca Skana, he researched her visual skills. However, after performing favourably in the 72 trials per day, Skana suddenly began consistently getting every answer wrong. Dr Spong concluded that a few fish were not enough motivation. He began playing music, which seemed to provide Skana with much more motivation. Paul Spong was born in New Zealand in 1939. ...

Use of tools

As of 2005, scientists have observed limited groups of bottle nose dolphins around the Australian Pacific using a basic tool. When searching for food on the sea floor, many of these dolphins were seen tearing off pieces of sponge and wrapping them around their "bottle nose" to prevent abrasions.^[18] 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Classes Calcarea Hexactinellida Demospongiae The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus pore and ferre to bear) are animals of the phylum Porifera. ...

Communication

Dolphins emit two very distinct kinds of acoustic signals, which we call whistles and clicks.

• Clicks - quick broadband burst pulses - are used for echolocation, although some lower-frequency broadband vocalizations may serve a non-echolocative purpose such as communication; for example, the pulsed calls of Orcas. Pulses in a click train at intervals of ~35-50 milliseconds, and in general these inter-click intervals are slightly greater than the round-trip time of sound to the target.
• Whistles - narrow-band frequency modulated (FM) signals - are used for communicative purposes, such as contact calls, the pod-specific dialects of resident Orcas, or the signature whistle of bottlenose dolphins.

There is strong evidence that some specific whistles, called signature whistles, are used by dolphins to identify and/or call each other; dolphins have been observed emitting both other specimens' signature whistles, and their own. A unique signature whistle develops quite early in a dolphin's life, and it appears to be created in an imitation of the signature whistle of the dolphin's mother.^[19] Echolocation, also called Biosonar, is the biological sonar used by several mammals such as bats (although not all species), dolphins and whales (though not baleen whales). ... One millisecond is one-thousandth of a second. ... In telecommunications, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its frequency. ... // Look up pod in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Binomial name Orcinus orca Linnaeus, 1758 Orca range (in blue) The Orca or Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) is the largest species of the oceanic dolphin family (Delphinidae). ... Binomial name Montagu, 1821 Bottlenose Dolphin range (in blue) The Bottlenose Dolphin is one of the most common and well-known dolphins. ...

Xitco reported the ability of dolphins to passively eavesdrop on the active echolocative inspection of an object by another dolphin. Herman calls this effect the "acoustic flashlight" hypothesis, and may be related to findings by both Herman and Xitco on the comprehension of variations on the pointing gesture, including human pointing, dolphin postural pointing, and human gaze, in the sense of a redirection of another individual's attention, an ability which may require theory of mind. Louis Herman is a researcher in of dolphin sensory abilities, dolphin cognition, and humpback whales. ... This article is about psychological concept of attention. ... The phrase theory of mind (often abbreviated as ToM) is used in several related ways: general categories of theories of mind - theories about the nature of mind, and its structure and processes; theories of mind related to individual minds; in recent years, the phrase theory of mind has more commonly...

The environment where dolphins live makes experiments much more expensive and complicated than for other species; additionally, the fact that cetaceans can emit and hear sounds (which are believed to be their main means of communication) in a range of frequencies much wider than humans' means that sophisticated equipment, which was scarcely available in the past, is needed to record and analyse them. For example, clicks can contain significant energy in frequencies greater than 110 kHz (for comparison, it is unusual for a human to be able to hear sounds above 20 kHz), requiring that equipment have a sampling rates of at least 220 kHz; MHz-capable hardware is often used. This article is about audible acoustic waves. ... A kilohertz (kHz) is a unit of frequency equal to 1,000 hertz (1,000 cycles per second). ... A kilohertz (kHz) is a unit of frequency equal to 1,000 hertz (1,000 cycles per second). ... The sampling frequency or sampling rate defines the number of samples per second taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete signal. ... A megahertz (MHz) is one million (106) hertz, a measure of frequency. ...

In addition to the acoustic communication channel, the visual modality is also significant. The contrasting pigmentation of the body may be used, for example with "flashes" of the hypopigmented ventral area of some species, as can the production of bubble streams during signature whistling. Also, much of the synchronous and cooperative behaviors, as described in the Behavior section of this entry, as well as cooperative foraging methods, likely are managed at least in part through visual means. In psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret visible light information reaching the eyes which is then made available for planning and action. ... In biology, pigment is any material resulting in color in plant or animal cells which is the result of selective absorption. ... Cetacean intelligence denotes the cognitive capabilities of the cetacean order of mammals and especially the various species of dolphin. ...

Whilst there is little evidence for dolphin language, experiments have shown that they can learn human sign language. Akeakamai, a bottle nosed dolphin, was able to understand both individual words and basic sentences like "touch the frisbee with your tail and then jump over it" (Herman, Richards, & Wolz 1984). Dolphins have also exhibited the ability to understand the significance of the ordering of each set of tasks in one sentence. Akeakamai was a female Atlantic bottlenose dolphin, who along with a companion female dolphin named Phoenix, were the subjects Louis Hermans animal language studies at the Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory in Honolulu, Hawaii. ...

Self-awareness

Self-awareness is, rather philosophically, seen to be a sign of highly-developed, abstract thinking. Self-awareness, though not well-defined scientifically, is believed to be the precursor to more advanced processes like meta-cognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that are typical of humans. Scientific research into self-awareness has suggested that bottlenose dolphins possess self-awareness. To say "dolphins are self-aware" is not correct because dolphins differ markedly, so an assessment cannot be made for all species, some of which have much smaller brain sizes and presumably different structures. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Self-consciousness. ... For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... Metacognition refers to thinking about cognition (memory, perception, calculation, association, etc. ... Binomial name Montagu, 1821 Bottlenose Dolphin range (in blue) The Bottlenose Dolphin is one of the most common and well-known dolphins. ...

The most widely used test for self-awareness in animals is the mirror test, developed by Gordon Gallup in the 1970s, in which a temporary dye is placed on an animal's body, and the animal is then presented with a mirror. Some scientists still disagree with these findings, arguing that the results of these tests are open to human interpretation and suceptible to Clever Hans effect. This test is far less definitive than when used for primates, because primates can touch the mark or the mirror, while dolphins cannot, making their alleged self-recognition behaviour less clear. Critics argue that behaviours that are said to identify self-awareness resemble existing social behaviours, and so researchers could be mislabelling social responses to another dolphin. The researchers counter-argue that the behaviours shown to evidence self-awareness are very different to normal responses to another dolphin, including paying significantly more attention to another dolphin than towards their mirror image. Dr. Gallup called the results "the most suggestive evidence to date" of mirror self-recognition in dolphins, but "not definitive" because he was not entirely clear that the dolphins were not interpreting the image in the mirror as another animal. Whereas apes can merely touch the mark on themselves with their fingers, dolphins show less definitive behavior of self-awareness, twisting and turning themselves to observe the mark. The mirror test is a measure of self-awareness developed by Gordon Gallup Jr in 1970. ... Gordon G. Gallup, Jr. ... Clever Hans performs Clever Hans (in German, der Kluge Hans) was a horse that was apparently trained to perform arithmetic and other intellectual tasks. ...

As a further response to these criticisms, in 1995, Marten and Psarakos used television to test dolphin self-awareness ^[20]. They showed dolphins real-time footage of themselves, recorded footage, and another dolphin. They concluded that their evidence suggested self-awareness rather than social behaviour. This study has not been repeated since then, however, so the results remain uncorroborated

Comparative cognition

See also: Animal cognition

The area of the comparative cognition of the dolphin is one of the primary avenues of the investigation of cetacean intelligence. Animal cognition, is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of animals other than humans. ...

Examples of cognitive abilities investigated in the dolphin include concept formation, sensory skills, and the use of mental representation of dolphins. Such research has been ongoing since the late 1970s, and includes the specific areas of: acoustic mimicry, behavioural mimicry (inter- and intra-specific), comprehension of novel sequences in an artificial language (including non-finite state grammars as well as novel anomalous sequences), memory, monitoring of self-behaviours (including reporting on these, as well as avoiding or repeating them), reporting on the presence and absence of objects, object categorization, discrimination and matching (identity matching to sample, delayed matching to sample, arbitrary matching to sample, matching across echolocation and vision, reporting that no identity match exists, etc.), synchronous creative behaviours between two animals, comprehension of symbols for various body parts, comprehension of the pointing gesture and gaze (as made by dolphins or humans), problem solving, echolocative eavesdropping, and more. Some researchers include Louis Herman, Mark Xitco, John Gory, Stan Kuczaj, Adam Pack, and many others. Animal language is the modeling of human language in non human animal systems. ... For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation). ... For Wikipedias categorization projects, see Wikipedia:Categorization. ... Echolocation, also called Biosonar, is the biological sonar used by several mammals such as bats (although not all species), dolphins and whales (though not baleen whales). ... Louis Herman is a researcher in of dolphin sensory abilities, dolphin cognition, and humpback whales. ...

While these are largely laboratory studies, field studies relating to dolphin and cetacean cognition are also relevant to the issue of intelligence, including those proposing tool use, culture, fission-fusion social structure (including tracking alliances and other cooperative behaviour), acoustic behaviour (bottlenosed dolphin signature whistles, sperm whale clicks, orca pod vocalizations), foraging methods (partial beaching, cooperation with human fishermen, herding fish into a ball, etc.). See: Richard Connor, Hal Whitehead, Peter Tyack, Janet Mann, Randall Wells, Kenneth Norris, B. Wursig, John Ford, Louis Herman, Diana Reiss, Lori Marino, Sam Ridgway, Paul Nachtigall, Eduardo Mercado, Denise Herzing, Whitlow Au. A mass stranding of Pilot Whales A beached whale is a whale which has become stranded on land, usually on a beach. ...

In contrast to the primates, cetaceans are particularly far-removed from humans in evolutionary time. Therefore, cognitive abilities generally cannot be claimed to derive from a common ancestor, whereas such claims are sometimes made by researchers studying primate cognition. Any common ancestors of cetaceans and humans were almost certainly of distinctly inferior cognitive abilities than their modern descendants.

See also

Cetaceans Portal

• Animal cognition
• Morgan's Canon
• John C. Lilly - Pioneer researcher in human/dolphin communication.
• Louis Herman Scientist in dolphin cognition and sensory abilities
• Animal Language
• Vocal learning
• Spindle neuron

This image shows the fluke of Sperm Whale as it begins a dive into the Gulf of Mexico. ... Animal cognition, is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of animals other than humans. ... Coined by 19th-century British psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan, Morgans Canon (more usually called Lloyd Morgans Canon, or occasionally Morgans Canon of Interpretation) remains a fundamental precept of comparative (animal) psychology. ... John Cunningham Lilly (January 6, 1915 – September 30, 2001) was an American physician, psychoanalyst and writer. ... Louis Herman is a researcher in of dolphin sensory abilities, dolphin cognition, and humpback whales. ... Animal language is the modeling of human language in non human animal systems. ... Spindle neurons are a specific class of neurons that participate in signal transmission in the nervous system, and are characterized by a large spindle-shaped soma, gradually tapering into a single apical dendrite (axon) in one direction, with only a single dendrite facing opposite. ...

References and external links

Citations

Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 40th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 40th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 15th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 75th day of the year (76th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 354th day of the year (355th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 40th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 87th day of the year (88th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 87th day of the year (88th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 303rd day of the year (304th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... WLIW is a Long Island PBS affiliate that serves the New York City area. ... Karen Pryor Karen Pryor is an author and a scientist with an international reputation in the fields of marine mammal biology and behavioral psychology. ... Boyd Matson is the former Anchor of National Geographic Explorer and former Co-Anchor of Weekend Today. ... is the 150th day of the year (151st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... Guardian Unlimited is a British website owned by the Guardian Media Group. ... is the 184th day of the year (185th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... BBC News is the department within the BBC responsible for the corporations news-gathering and production of news programmes on BBC television, radio and online. ... is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Cetacean brain

Popular media

Scientific or academic sources

Louis Herman is a researcher in of dolphin sensory abilities, dolphin cognition, and humpback whales. ...

Self-awareness research

Other or uncategorized