An iconic image of the accident.

The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on the morning of January 28, 1986, at 11:39 EST, when Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrated seventy-three seconds into its flight, owing to the failure of an O-ring seal in the right solid rocket booster (SRB). The seal failure caused a flame leak from the SRB that impinged upon the adjacent external propellant tank and aft SRB connecting strut. Within seconds the flame caused structural failure of the external tank, and the orbiter broke up abruptly due to aerodynamic forces. The crew compartment and many other vehicle fragments were eventually recovered from the ocean floor. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3555x2879, 1327 KB) Summary Short Description: Space Shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after take-off. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3555x2879, 1327 KB) Summary Short Description: Space Shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after take-off. ... January 28 is the 28th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... NASAs Space Shuttle, officially called Space Transportation System (STS), is the United States governments current manned launch vehicle. ... Space Shuttle Challenger (NASA Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-099) was NASAs second Space Shuttle orbiter to be put into service, after Columbia. ... Typical O-ring and application An O-ring is a loop of elastomer with a round (o-shaped) cross-section used as a mechanical seal. ... The Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) is the rocket that provides 83% of liftoff thrust for the Space Shuttle. ... The Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) is the rocket that provides 83% of liftoff thrust for the Space Shuttle. ... The Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) on its way to the Vehicle Assembly Building. ... Structural failure refers to loss of the load-carying capacity of a component or member within the structure or of the structure itself. ...

The Rogers Commission, appointed by President Reagan to investigate the accident, found that NASA's organizational culture and decision-making processes had been a key contributing factor to the accident. NASA managers had failed to deal with the flawed design of the O-rings, had ignored warnings from engineers about the inadvisability of launching on an unusually cold day, and had failed to adequately report these technical concerns to their superiors. The Rogers Commission offered NASA nine recommendations that were to be implemented before shuttle flights resumed. The Rogers Commission Report was created by a Presidential Commission charged to investigate the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion on its 10th mission, STS-51-L. The comprehensive 225-page report documented the technical and managerial factors that contributed to the accident. ... The presidential seal was used by President Hayes in 1880 and last modified in 1969 by adding the 50th star for Hawaii. ... Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975). ... Typical O-ring and application An O-ring is a loop of elastomer with a round (o-shaped) cross-section used as a mechanical seal. ...

Pre-launch conditions and delays

Ice on the launch tower on the morning of the Challenger launch.

Challenger's launch was originally set for 2:43 pm Eastern Standard Time (EST) on January 22. Delays suffered by the previous mission, STS-61-C, caused the launch date to be pushed back to the 23rd and then to the 24th. Launch was rescheduled for the 25th due to bad weather at the Transoceanic Abort Landing (TAL) site in Dakar, Senegal. NASA decided to use Casablanca as the TAL site, but because it was not equipped for night landings the launch had to be moved to the morning (Florida time). Predictions of unacceptable weather at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) caused the launch to be rescheduled for 9:37 am EST on the 27th. Launch was then delayed 24 hours when the pad technicians could not remove a 'closing fixture' from the orbiter's hatch. When the fixture was finally sawn off, cross winds at the Shuttle Landing Facility exceeded the limits for a Return to Launch Site (RTLS) abort, and thus the launch was delayed once again.^[1] January 22 is the 22nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Crew (total flights to date in parentheses) Robert L. Gibson,(2) Commander Charles F. Bolden, (1) Pilot Franklin Chang-Diaz (1) Mission Specialist Steven A. Hawley, (2) Mission Specialist George D. Nelson, (2) Mission Specialist Robert Cenker (RCA Electronics), (1) Payload Specialist Rep. ... A space shuttle abort is an emergency procedure due to equipment failure, most commonly during ascent. ... (City of Dakar, divided into 19 communes darrondissement) City proper (commune) Région Dakar Département Dakar Mayor Pape Diop (PDS) (since 2002) Area 82. ... Mosquée Hassan II à Casablanca Satellite image of Casablanca Casablanca (Spanish for white house ; Standard Arabic: الدار البيضاء transliterated ; Moroccan Arabic: dar beïda) is a city in western Morocco, located on the Atlantic Ocean. ... The Eastern Standard Time Zone (abbreviated EST) is a geographic region that keeps time by subtracting five hours from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). ... Merritt Island and Kennedy Space Center The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is the NASA space vehicle launch facility (spaceport) at Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island in Florida, United States. ... Space Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) is a location where the Space Shuttle can land. ... A space shuttle abort is an emergency procedure due to equipment failure, most commonly during ascent. ...

The morning of the 28th dawned unusually cold, with temperatures having dropped into the low twenties overnight. The low temperatures had prompted concern from engineers at Morton Thiokol, the contractor responsible for the construction and maintenance of the shuttle's solid rocket boosters. At a teleconference which took place on the evening of the 27th, Thiokol engineers and managers discussed the weather conditions with NASA managers from Kennedy Space Center and Marshall Space Flight Center. Although several engineers--most notably Roger Boisjoly--expressed concern about the effect of the temperature on the resilience of the rubber O-rings that sealed the joints of the solid rocket boosters, Morton Thiokol managers in the end decided to recommend that the launch should go ahead.^[2] A Trident C-4 FBM launches and fires its Thiokol solid rocket first stage Thiokol (variously Thiokol Chemical Company, Morton-Thiokol Inc. ... The Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) is the rocket that provides 83% of liftoff thrust for the Space Shuttle. ... Merritt Island and Kennedy Space Center The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is the NASA space vehicle launch facility (spaceport) at Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island in Florida, United States. ... Aerial view of the test area at Marshall Space Flight Center The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) is a lead NASA center for propulsion, Space Shuttle propulsion, external fuel tank, crew training and payloads, International Space Station (ISS) design and construction, for computers, networks, and information management. ... Roger Boisjoly was an engineer who worked for Morton Thiokol, the manufacturer of the solid rocket boosters of the space shuttle. ... The Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) is the rocket that provides 83% of liftoff thrust for the Space Shuttle. ...

Due to the low temperatures, a significant amount of ice built up on the fixed service structure that stood beside the shuttle. Although the KSC ice team had worked through the night removing ice, engineers at Rockwell International, the shuttle's prime contractor, still expressed concern. They warned that ice might be shaken loose during launch, and might either strike the shuttle or be aspirated by its main engines. Managers at Rockwell told shuttle program manager Arnold Aldrich that they could not completely assure that the shuttle was safe to launch, but failed to communicate a firm recommendation against launching. As a result of these discussions, Aldrich decided to postpone the shuttle launch by an hour in order to give the ice team the time to perform another inspection. After that last inspection, during which the ice appeared to be melting, Challenger was finally cleared to launch at 11:38 am EST.^[2] Merritt Island and Kennedy Space Center The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is the NASA space vehicle launch facility (spaceport) at Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island in Florida, United States. ... Rockwell International was the ultimate incarnation of a series of companies under the sphere of influence of Willard Rockwell, who had made his fortune after the invention and successful launch of a new bearing system for truck axles in 1919. ...

January 28 launch and failure

Liftoff and initial ascent

Camera captures grey smoke emitting from the right-hand SRB

At 6.6 seconds before liftoff, the three space shuttle main engines (SSME) ignited. Until liftoff actually occurs, the SSMEs can be safely shut down and the launch aborted if necessary. At liftoff time (T=0), the three SSMEs were at 100% of rated performance and began throttling up to 104% of rated performance under computer control. At this moment, the two SRBs were ignited and hold-down bolts were released with explosives, freeing the vehicle from the pad. With the first vertical motion of the vehicle, the gaseous hydrogen vent arm retracted from the External Tank (ET) but failed to latch back. Review of film shot by pad cameras showed that the arm did not re-contact the vehicle.^[3] The post-launch inspection of the pad also revealed that kick springs on four of the hold-down bolts were missing. They were also ruled out as a contributing factor in the accident.^[4] Image File history File links Sts-33_d67_01. ... Image File history File links Sts-33_d67_01. ... Space Shuttle Main Engine cluster The Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) are the three main engines on the Space Shuttle orbiter. ...

Later review of launch film showed that at T+0.678, strong puffs of dark grey smoke emitted from the right-hand SRB near the aft strut that attaches the booster to the ET. The last smoke puff occurred at about T+2.733. The last view of smoke around the strut was at T+3.375. All times are given in seconds after launch and correspond to the telemetry time-codes from the closest instrumented event to each described event.^[3] The following account of the accident is derived from real time telemetry data and photographic analysis, as well as from transcripts of air-to-ground and mission control voice communications.^[5]

Challenger lifts off.

As the vehicle cleared the tower, the SSMEs were operating at 104% of rated performance, and control switched from the Launch Control Center (LCC) at KSC to the Mission Control Center (MCC) in Houston, Texas. Image File history File links Challenger_liftoff_(STST-51-L). ... Image File history File links Challenger_liftoff_(STST-51-L). ... Space Shuttle Main Engine block The Space Shuttle orbiter has three main engines. ... The Launch Control Center (LCC) is a four-story building that is the electronic brain of Launch Complex 39. ... Merritt Island and Kennedy Space Center The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is the NASA space vehicle launch facility (spaceport) at Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island in Florida, United States. ... Mission Control Center (MCC) is a unit that manages aerospace flights. ... Nickname: Bayou City Location in the state of Texas Coordinates: Counties Harris County Fort Bend County Montgomery County Mayor Bill White Area    - City 1,558 km²  (601. ...

To prevent aerodynamic forces from tearing the shuttle apart, the SSMEs throttled down to limit the velocity of the shuttle in the dense lower atmosphere. The throttle down operation began at about T+28. At T+35.379, the SSMEs throttled back further to the planned 65%. Five seconds later, at about 19,000 feet, Challenger passed through Mach 1. At T+51.860, the SSMEs began throttling back up to 104% as the vehicle approached Max Q, the period of maximum aerodynamic pressure on the vehicle. Aerodynamics (shaping of objects that affect the flow of air, liquid or gas) is a branch of fluid dynamics concerned with the study of forces and gas flows. ... Mach may refer to: Ernst Mach Mach number, as a measure of speed inertial mass GNU Mach The microkernel on which GNU Hurd is based Mach kernel, an operating systems kernel technology used in Mac OS X Mach band, an optical illusion Mach Five, the name of the car in... A visible shock wave formed as the Apollo 11 Saturn V encountered Maximum Dynamic Pressure (Max Q) at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12. ...

Plume

Camera captures plume on right SRB

At about T+58.788, a tracking film camera captured the beginnings of a plume near the aft attach strut on the right SRB. Unknown to those on Challenger or in Houston, ignited gas had begun to leak through a growing hole in one of the right-hand SRB's joints. Within a second, the plume became well defined and intense. Internal pressure in the right-side SRB began to drop because of the rapidly enlarging hole in the failed joint, and at T+60.238 there was evidence of flame through the rupture impinging on the external tank. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (550x750, 9 KB) Summary Camera E-207 show a plume near the aft struct that attaches the right solid rocket booster to the external tank. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (550x750, 9 KB) Summary Camera E-207 show a plume near the aft struct that attaches the right solid rocket booster to the external tank. ... In hydrodynamics, a plume is a column of one fluid moving through another. ... The Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) on its way to the Vehicle Assembly Building. ...

At T+64.660, the plume suddenly changed shape, indicating that a leak had begun in the liquid hydrogen tank, the aft portion of the external tank. Main engine nozzles pivoted under computer control to compensate for the unbalanced thrust produced by the booster burn-through. Pressure in the shuttle's external liquid hydrogen tank began to drop at T+66.764, indicating the effect of the leak. The American Federation of Teachers (AFT) is the smaller of the two education labor unions in the United States, representing 1. ...

At this stage the situation still seemed normal both to the astronauts and to flight controllers. At T+68, the Capcom informed the crew that they were "go at throttle up," and Commander Dick Scobee confirmed the call. His response, "Roger, go at throttle up," was the last communication from Challenger on the air-to-ground loop. Francis Richard Dick Scobee (May 19, 1939 - January 28, 1986) was an American astronaut who died commanding the Space Shuttle Challenger, which suffered catastrophic booster failure during launch of the STS-51-L mission. ...

Vehicle breakup

View of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster from Cocoa Beach.

At T+72.284, the right SRB apparently pulled away from the aft strut attaching it to the external tank. Later analysis of telemetry data showed a sudden lateral acceleration to the right at T+72.525, which may have been felt by the crew. The last statement captured by the crew cabin recorder came just half a second after this acceleration; Pilot Michael J. Smith said "Uh oh". Smith may also have been responding to indications on main engine performance or falling pressures in the external fuel tank. Image File history File links Sts-33_e208_01. ... Image File history File links Sts-33_e208_01. ... Cocoa Beach is a city located in Brevard County, Florida. ... The American Federation of Teachers (AFT) is the smaller of the two education labor unions in the United States, representing 1. ... Michael John Smith (April 30, 1945 – January 28, 1986) was an American astronaut, pilot of the Space Shuttle Challenger when it was destroyed during the STS-51-L mission. ...

At T+73.124, the aft dome of the liquid hydrogen tank failed, producing a propulsive force pushing the tank into the liquid oxygen tank in the forward external tank. At the same time, the right SRB rotated about the forward attach strut and struck the intertank structure. The Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) on its way to the Vehicle Assembly Building. ...

The breakup of the vehicle began at about T+73.162 seconds, and at 48,000 feet (15 km) in altitude.^[6] With the external tank disintegrating, Challenger veered from its correct attitude with respect to the local air flow and was immediately torn apart by aerodynamic forces. The two SRBs, which can withstand greater aerodynamic loads, separated from the ET and continued in uncontrolled powered flight for another 37 seconds. The SRB casings were one-half-inch thick steel and much stronger than the orbiter and ET; thus, both SRBs survived the breakup of the space shuttle stack, even though the right SRB was still suffering the effects of the joint burn-through that had set the destruction of Challenger in motion.^[4] A foot (plural: feet) is any of several old units of distance or length, measuring around a quarter to a third of a meter. ... The metre, or meter (US), is a measure of length. ...

Post-breakup flight controller dialog

Jay Greene at his console after the breakup of Challenger

In Mission Control, there was silence for some seconds after the accident. Television screens showed a cloud of smoke and vapor where Challenger had been, with pieces of debris falling toward the ocean. At about T+89, flight director Jay Greene prompted his flight dynamics officer for information. The response was that "filters [radar] got discreting sources," a further indication that Challenger had broken into multiple pieces. The ground controller reported "negative contact, loss of downlink" of radio and telemetry data from Challenger. Image File history File linksMetadata STS51L(S)002. ... Image File history File linksMetadata STS51L(S)002. ... Jay Greene is a retired NASA engineer. ... Mission Control Center (MCC) is a unit that manages aerospace flights. ... Jay Greene is a retired NASA engineer. ... Flight Dynamics Officer (FDO) is a term for a space flight support postion. ... Flight controller: a space flight control room position at NASAs Mission Control Center. ...

At T+110.250 the Range Safety Officer (RSO) at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station sent radio signals that activated the range destruct packages on board both solid rocket boosters. This was a normal contingency procedure, undertaken because the RSO judged the free-flying SRBs a possible threat to land or sea. The same destruct signal would have destroyed the External Tank had it not already disintegrated.^[7] In the field of rocketry, a Range Safety Officer has responsibility for the safe transportation, storage and launch of rocket vehicles. ... The Bumper V-2 was the first missile launched at Cape Canaveral on July 24, 1950. ...

"Flight controllers here are looking very carefully at the situation," reported the public affairs officer. "Obviously a major malfunction." Shortly afterwards, the flight dynamics officer relayed the range safety officer's report that the vehicle had exploded. Flight director Jay Greene then ordered that contingency procedures be put into effect at Mission Control; these procedures included locking the doors of the control center, shutting down telephone communications with the outside world, and following checklists that ensured that the relevant data was correctly recorded and preserved. Jay Greene is a retired NASA engineer. ...

No "explosion"

Challenger begins to disintegrate.

The shuttle and external tank did not actually "explode"; there was no detonation. Instead they rapidly disintegrated under tremendous aerodynamic forces, since the shuttle was near "Max Q", or maximum aerodynamic pressure. When the external tank disintegrated, the fuel and oxidizer stored within it was released, producing the appearance of a massive fireball. However, according to the NASA team that analyzed imagery after the accident, there was only "localized combustion" of propellant.^[4] Instead, the visible cloud was primarily composed of vapor and gases resulting from the release of the shuttle's liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen propellant. Stored in cryogenic conditions, the liquid hydrogen could not have ignited rapidly enough to trigger an "explosion" in the traditional sense. Had there been a true explosion, the entire shuttle would have been instantly destroyed, killing the crew at that moment. The more robustly constructed crew cabin and SRBs survived the breakup of the launch vehicle; the detached cabin continued along a ballistic trajectory, and was observed exiting the cloud of gases at T+75.237.^[4] Twenty-five seconds after the breakup of the vehicle, the trajectory of the crew compartment peaked at a height of 65,000 feet (21.5 km); the breakup had occurred at only 48,000 feet (16 km).^[6] Gasoline explosions, simulating bomb drops at an airshow. ... A visible shock wave formed as the Apollo 11 Saturn V encountered Maximum Dynamic Pressure (Max Q) at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12. ... Cryogenics is the study of very low temperatures or the production of the same, and is often confused with cryobiology, the study of the effect of low temperatures on organisms, or the study of cryopreservation. ... The Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) is the rocket that provides 83% of liftoff thrust for the Space Shuttle. ...

Cause and time of death

At vehicle breakup, the robustly constructed crew cabin detached in one piece and slowly tumbled. NASA estimated separation forces at about 12 to 20 times the force of gravity (g) very briefly; within two seconds forces were below 4 g, and within ten seconds the cabin was in free fall. These forces were likely insufficient to cause major injury. At least some of the astronauts were likely alive and briefly conscious after the breakup, because three of the four personal egress air packs (PEAPs) on the flight deck were found to have been activated. Investigators found their remaining unused air supply roughly consistent with the expected consumption during the 2 minute 45 second post-breakup trajectory. Whether the astronauts remained conscious long after the breakup is unknown, and largely depends on whether the detached crew cabin maintained pressure integrity. If it did not, time of useful consciousness at that altitude is just a few seconds; the PEAPs supplied only unpressurized air, and hence would not have helped the crew retain consciousness. The crew cabin impacted the ocean surface at roughly 207 miles per hour (333 km/hour), causing deceleration of over 200 g, far beyond the structural limits of the crew compartment or crew survivability levels.^[6] For other uses, see g force. ... Free fall in its strictest sense is the condition of acceleration which is due only to gravity. ... Personal Egress Air Packs, or PEAPS are devices onboard a Space Shuttle which provide crewmembers approximately six minutes of breathable air in the case of a mishap while the vehicle is still located on the ground. ... Personal Egress Air Packs, or PEAPS are devices onboard a Space Shuttle which provide crewmembers approximately six minutes of breathable air in the case of a mishap while the vehicle is still located on the ground. ... AIR is a three-letter abbreviation with multiple meanings, as described below: The Annals of Improbable Research, a monthly magazine devoted to scientific humour All India Radio - Indias Government Radio service AIR, a popular electronica band from France. ...

On July 28, 1986, Rear Admiral Richard H. Truly, NASA's Associate Administrator for Space Flight and a former astronaut, released a report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the accident. Dr. Kerwin, a veteran of the Skylab 2 mission, had been commissioned to undertake the study soon after the accident. According to the Kerwin Report: July 28 is the 209th day (210th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 156 days remaining. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Richard H. Truly Richard Harrison Truly (born November 12, 1937) is a retired Vice Admiral in the United States Navy, former astronaut, and was the 8th Administrator of NASA from 1989 to 1992. ... Joseph Peter Kerwin, M.D. (Captain, MC, USN, Ret. ... Skylab 2 or SL-2 was the first human spaceflight mission to Skylab, the first U.S. orbital space station. ...

The findings are inconclusive. The impact of the crew compartment with the ocean surface was so violent that evidence of damage occurring in the seconds which followed the explosion was masked. Our final conclusions are: the cause of death of the Challenger astronauts cannot be positively determined; the forces to which the crew were exposed during Orbiter breakup were probably not sufficient to cause death or serious injury; and the crew possibly, but not certainly, lost consciousness in the seconds following Orbiter breakup due to in-flight loss of crew module pressure.[6]

Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ...

Crew escape was not possible

Further information: Shuttle ejection escape systems.

Further information: Post-Challenger abort enhancements.

During powered flight of the space shuttle, crew escape was not possible. While launch escape systems were considered several times during shuttle development, NASA's conclusion was that the shuttle's expected high reliability would preclude the need for one. Modified SR-71 Blackbird ejection seats and full pressure suits were used on the first four shuttle orbital missions, considered test flights, but they were removed for the operational missions that followed. Providing a launch escape system for larger crews was considered undesirable due to "limited utility, technical complexity and excessive cost in dollars, weight or schedule delays."^[8] A space shuttle abort is an emergency procedure due to equipment failure, most commonly during ascent. ... A space shuttle abort is an emergency procedure due to equipment failure, most commonly during ascent. ... The Lockheed SR-71, unofficially known as the Blackbird and by its crews as the Habu, was an advanced, long-range, Mach 3 strategic reconnaissance aircraft developed from the Lockheed YF-12A and A-12 aircraft by the Lockheed Skunk Works (also responsible for the U-2). ...

After the loss of Challenger, the question was re-opened, and NASA considered several different options, including ejector seats, tractor rockets and bailing out through the bottom of the orbiter. However, NASA once again concluded that all of the launch escape systems considered would be impractical due to the sweeping vehicle modifications that would have been necessary and the resultant limitations on crew size. A bail-out system was designed to give the crew the option to leave the shuttle during gliding flight; however, this system would not have been available in the Challenger scenario.^[9]

Aftermath

Tributes

The Space Shuttle Challenger Memorial, where some remains were buried.

On the night of the disaster, President Ronald Reagan had been scheduled to give his annual State of the Union address. He initially announced that the address would go on as scheduled, but under mounting pressure he postponed the State of the Union address for a week and gave a national address on the Challenger disaster from the Oval Office of the White House. It was written by Peggy Noonan, and finished with the following statement, which quoted from the poem "High Flight" by John Gillespie Magee, Jr.: Download high resolution version (480x640, 90 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (480x640, 90 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... The presidential seal was used by President Hayes in 1880 and last modified in 1969 by adding the 50th star for Hawaii. ... Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975). ... Alternative meanings in State of the Union (disambiguation) The State of the Union Address is an annual event in which the President of the United States reports on the status of the country, normally to a joint session of the U.S. Congress (the House of Representatives and the Senate). ... The Oval Office is the official office of the President of the United States, in the West Wing of the White House, built in 1909. ... North façade of the White House, seen from Pennsylvania Avenue. ... Peggy Noonan, on Hannity and Colmes. ... John Gillespie Magee Jr Magees Grave, Scopwick Pilot Officer John Gillespie Magee, Junior (June 9, 1922 – December 11, 1941) was an American aviator and poet who died fighting in World War II while serving in the Royal Canadian Air Force, which he had joined before the United States had...

We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and 'slipped the surly bonds of earth' to 'touch the face of God.'[10]

Three days later, Reagan and his wife Nancy traveled to the Johnson Space Center to attend a memorial service honoring the astronauts. Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ... Nancy Davis Reagan (born July 6, 1921) is the widow of Ronald Reagan and was First Lady of the United States from 1981 to 1989. ... An aerial view of the complete Johnson Space Center facility in Houston, Texas in 1989. ...

Funeral ceremonies

The remains of the crew that were identifiable were returned to their families on April 29, 1986. Two of the crewmembers, Dick Scobee and Michael Smith, were buried by their families at Arlington National Cemetery at individual grave sites. Other crew remains were buried at the Space Shuttle Challenger Memorial in Arlington on May 20, 1986.^[11] April 29 is the 119th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (120th in leap years). ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... [[ Historical Information Arlington National Cemetery Section 27 Facts Pvt. ... May 20 is the 140th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (141st in leap years). ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Recovery of debris

In the first minutes after the accident, recovery efforts were begun by NASA's Launch Recovery Director, who ordered the ships used by NASA for recovery of the solid rocket boosters to be sent to the location of the water impact. Search and rescue aircraft were also despatched. At this stage, however, debris was still falling, and the Range Safety Officer (RSO) held both aircraft and ships out of the impact area until it was safe for them to enter. It was about an hour until the RSO allowed the recovery forces to begin their work.^[12]

Part of the left solid rocket booster, salvaged by search and recovery teams.

The search and rescue operations which took place in the first week after the Challenger accident were managed by the Department of Defense on behalf of NASA, with assistance from the United States Coast Guard, and mostly involved surface searches. According to the Coast Guard, "the operation was the largest surface search in which they had participated."^[12] This phase of operations lasted until February 7. Thereafter, recovery efforts were managed by a Search, Recovery and Reconstruction team; its aim was to salvage debris that would help in determining the cause of the accident. Sonar, divers, remotely-operated submersibles and manned submersibles were all used during the search, which covered an area of 480 square nautical miles, and took place at depths of up to 1200 feet. By May 1, enough of the right solid rocket booster had been recovered to determine the original cause of the accident, and the major salvage operations were concluded. Some shallow-water recovery efforts continued, but this was unconnected with the accident investigation; it aimed to recover debris for use in NASA's studies of the properties of materials used in spacecraft and launch vehicles.^[12] The United States Coast Guard (USCG) is a branch of the United States armed forces involved in maritime law enforcement, mariner assistance, search and rescue, and national defense, among other duties of coast guards elsewhere. ... February 7 is the 38th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... May 1 is the 121st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (122nd in leap years). ...

On board Challenger was an American flag that was sponsored by Boy Scout Troop 514 of Monument, Colorado. It was recovered intact, still sealed in its cargo bag. Debris from Challenger washed up on Florida beaches for years after the incident. On December 17, 1996, ten years after the incident, two large pieces of the shuttle were found at Cocoa Beach.^[13] The Challenger flag was an American flag that was in the flight kit of the final Challenger mission. ... Elkhorn High Adventure Base Scouting in Colorado has a long history, from the 1910s to the present day, serving thousands of youth in programs that suit the rugged, mountainous environment in which they live. ... Monument is a town located in El Paso County, Colorado. ... December 17 is the 351st day of the year (352nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year for the Eradication of Poverty. ... Cocoa Beach is a city located in Brevard County, Florida. ...

Investigation

In the aftermath of the accident, NASA was criticized for its lack of openness with the press. The New York Times noted on the day after the accident that "neither Jay Greene, flight director for the ascent, nor any other person in the control room, was made available to the press by the space agency".^[14] In the absence of reliable sources, the press turned to speculation; both the New York Times and United Press International ran stories suggesting that a fault with the space shuttle external tank had caused the accident, despite the fact that NASA's internal investigation had quickly focused in on the solid rocket boosters.^[15][16] "The space agency," wrote space reporter William Harwood, "stuck to its policy of strict secrecy about the details of the investigation, an uncharacteristic stance for an agency that long prided itself on openness."^[15] The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ... Front of UPI Headquarters, Washington, D.C. United Press International (UPI) is a global news agency headquartered in the United States filing news in English, Spanish and Arabic. ... The Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) on its way to the Vehicle Assembly Building. ...

Rogers Commission

The Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, also known as the Rogers Commission (after its chairman), was formed to investigate the disaster. The commission members were Chairman William P. Rogers, Vice Chairman Neil Armstrong, David Acheson, Eugene Covert, Richard Feynman, Robert Hotz, Donald Kutyna, Sally Ride, Robert Rummel, Joseph Sutter, Arthur Walker, Albert Wheelon, and Chuck Yeager. The commission worked for several months and published a report of its findings. It found that the Challenger accident was caused by a failure in the O-rings sealing a joint on the right solid rocket booster, which allowed pressurized hot gasses and eventually flame to "blow by" the O-ring and make contact with the adjacent external tank, causing structural failure. The failure of the O-rings was attributed to a faulty design, whose performance could be too easily compromised by factors including the low temperature on the day of launch.^[17] The Rogers Commission Report was created by a Presidential Commission charged to investigate the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion on its 10th mission, STS-51-L. The comprehensive 225-page report documented the technical and managerial factors that contributed to the accident. ... William Pierce Rogers (June 23, 1913 – January 2, 2001) was an American politician, who served as a Cabinet officer in the administrations of two U.S. Presidents in the third quarter of the 20th century. ... Neil Alden Armstrong (born August 5, 1930) is a former American astronaut, test pilot, and Naval Aviator, and was the first human to set foot on the Moon. ... Richard Phillips Feynman (May 11, 1918 in Queens, New York – February 15, 1988 in Los Angeles, California) (surname pronounced FINE-man; in IPA) was an influential American physicist known for expanding greatly on the theory of quantum electrodynamics, particle theory, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium. ... Donald J. Kutyna (b. ... Sally Ride Sally Kristen Ride (b. ... Charles Yeager Charles Elwood Chuck Yeager (born on February 13, 1923, in Lincoln County, West Virginia) was a general officer in the United States Air Force and a noted test pilot. ... Typical O-ring and application An O-ring is a loop of elastomer with a round (o-shaped) cross-section used as a mechanical seal. ... The Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) on its way to the Vehicle Assembly Building. ...

Members of the Rogers Commission arrive at Kennedy Space Center.

More broadly, the report also considered the contributing causes of the accident. Most salient was the failure of both NASA and its contractor Morton Thiokol to respond adequately to the danger posed by the deficient joint design; rather than redesigning the joint, they came to define the problem as an acceptable flight risk.^[18] The report also strongly criticised the decision making process that led to the launch of Challenger, saying that it was seriously flawed.^[19] The Rogers Commission Report was created by a Presidential Commission charged to investigate the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion on its 10th mission, STS-51-L. The comprehensive 225-page report documented the technical and managerial factors that contributed to the accident. ... Merritt Island and Kennedy Space Center The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is the NASA space vehicle launch facility (spaceport) at Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island in Florida, United States. ... A Trident C-4 FBM launches and fires its Thiokol solid rocket first stage Thiokol (variously Thiokol Chemical Company, Morton-Thiokol Inc. ...

...failures in communication... resulted in a decision to launch 51-L based on incomplete and sometimes misleading information, a conflict between engineering data and management judgments, and a NASA management structure that permitted internal flight safety problems to bypass key Shuttle managers.[20]

One of the commission's most well-known members was theoretical physicist Richard Feynman. During a televised hearing, he famously demonstrated how the O-rings became less resilient and subject to seal failures at ice-cold temperatures by immersing a sample of the material in a glass of ice water. He was so critical of flaws in NASA's "safety culture" that he threatened to remove his name from the report unless it included his personal observations on the reliability of the shuttle, which appeared as Appendix F.^[21] In the appendix, he argued that the estimates of reliability offered by NASA management were wildly unrealistic, differing as much as a thousandfold from the estimates of working engineers. "For a successful technology," he concluded, "reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled."^[22] Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ... Richard Phillips Feynman (May 11, 1918 in Queens, New York – February 15, 1988 in Los Angeles, California) (surname pronounced FINE-man; in IPA) was an influential American physicist known for expanding greatly on the theory of quantum electrodynamics, particle theory, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium. ... Typical O-ring and application An O-ring is a loop of elastomer with a round (o-shaped) cross-section used as a mechanical seal. ...

U.S. House Committee hearings

The U.S. House Committee on Science and Technology also conducted hearings, and on October 29, 1986 released its own report on the Challenger accident.^[23] The committee reviewed the findings of the Rogers Commission as part of its investigation, and agreed with the Rogers Commission as to the technical causes of the accident. However, it differed from the committee in its assessment of the accident's contributing causes. The Committee on Science is a standing committee of the United States House of Representatives. ... October 29 is the 302nd day of the year (303rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

...the Committee feels that the underlying problem which led to the Challenger accident was not poor communication or underlying procedures as implied by the Rogers Commission conclusion. Rather, the fundamental problem was poor technical decision-making over a period of several years by top NASA and contractor personnel, who failed to act decisively to solve the increasingly serious anomalies in the Solid Rocket Booster joints.[24]

Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ...

NASA response

After the Challenger accident, further shuttle flights were suspended, pending the results of the Rogers Commission investigation. Whereas NASA had held an internal inquiry into the Apollo 1 fire, its actions after Challenger were more constrained by the judgments of outside bodies. The Rogers Commission offered nine recommendations on improving safety in the space shuttle program, and NASA was directed by President Ronald Reagan to report back within thirty days as to how it planned to implement those recommendations.^[25] The Rogers Commission Report was created by a Presidential Commission charged to investigate the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion on its 10th mission, STS-51-L. The comprehensive 225-page report documented the technical and managerial factors that contributed to the accident. ... Apollo One is the official name given retroactively to the Apollo/Saturn 204 (AS-204) spacecraft, destroyed by fire during a training exercise on January 27, 1967, at Pad 34 (Launch Complex 34 at Cape Canaveral) atop a Saturn IB rocket. ... The presidential seal was used by President Hayes in 1880 and last modified in 1969 by adding the 50th star for Hawaii. ... Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975). ...

In response to the commission's recommendation, NASA initiated a total redesign of the space shuttle's solid rocket boosters, which was watched over by an independent oversight group as stipulated by the commission.^[25] NASA's contract with Morton Thiokol, the contractor responsible for the solid rocket boosters, included a clause stating that in the event of a failure leading to "loss of life or mission," Thiokol would forfeit $10 million of its incentive fee and formally accept legal liability for the failure. After the Challenger accident, Thiokol agreed to "voluntarily accept" the monetary penalty in exchange for not being forced to accept liability.^[26] The Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) is the rocket that provides 83% of liftoff thrust for the Space Shuttle. ... A Trident C-4 FBM launches and fires its Thiokol solid rocket first stage Thiokol (variously Thiokol Chemical Company, Morton-Thiokol Inc. ... The Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) is the rocket that provides 83% of liftoff thrust for the Space Shuttle. ...

NASA also created a new Office of Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance, headed as the commission had specified by a NASA associate administrator who reported directly to the NASA administrator. George Martin, formerly of Martin Marietta, was appointed to this position.^[27] Former Challenger flight director Jay Greene became chief of the Safety Division of the directorate.^[28] Jay Greene is a retired NASA engineer. ...

The unrealistically optimistic launch schedule pursued by NASA had been criticised by the Rogers Commission as a possible contributing cause to the accident. After the accident, NASA attempted to aim at a more realistic shuttle flight rate: it added another orbiter, Endeavour, to the space shuttle fleet in order to replace Challenger, and worked with the Department of Defense in order to put more satellites in orbit using expendable launch vehicles rather than the shuttle.^[29] In August 1986, President Reagan also announced that the shuttle would no longer carry commercial satellite payloads. After a thirty-two month hiatus, the next shuttle mission, STS-26, was launched on September 29, 1988. Space Shuttle Endeavour being carried on top of a Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. ... The United States Department of Defense, abbreviated DoD or DOD and sometimes called the Defense Department, is a civilian Cabinet organization of the United States government. ... An expendable launch system is a single-use launch vehicle usually used to launch a payload into space. ... STS-26 was a space shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Discovery. ... September 29 is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Although significant changes were made by NASA after the Challenger accident, many commentators have argued that the changes in its management structure and organizational culture were neither deep nor long-lasting. After the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, attention once again focused on the attitude of NASA management towards safety issues. The Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) concluded that NASA had failed to learn many of the lessons of Challenger. In particular, the agency had not set up a truly independent office for safety oversight; the CAIB felt that in this area, "NASA's response to the Rogers Commission did not meet the Commission's intent".^[30] The CAIB believed that "the causes of the institutional failure responsible for Challenger have not been fixed," saying that the same "flawed decision making process" that had resulted in the Challenger accident was responsible for Columbia's destruction seventeen years later.^[31] The Space Shuttle Columbia breaks up over Texas. ... Memorial emblem for the three U.S. human space flight accidents. ...

Popular impact

Media coverage

Use as case study

The Challenger accident has frequently been used as a case study in the study of subjects such as engineering safety, the ethics of whistleblowing, communications and group decisionmaking. Roger Boisjoly, the engineer who had warned about the effect of cold weather on the O-rings, left his job at Morton Thiokol and became a speaker on workplace ethics.^[32] He argues that the caucus called by Morton Thiokol managers, which resulted in a recommendation to launch, "constituted the unethical decision-making forum resulting from intense customer intimidation."^[33] Universities such as Texas A&M and the University of Texas have also used the accident in classes on the ethics of engineering.^[34][35] Roger Boisjoly was an engineer who worked for Morton Thiokol, the manufacturer of the solid rocket boosters of the space shuttle. ... A Trident C-4 FBM launches and fires its Thiokol solid rocket first stage Thiokol (variously Thiokol Chemical Company, Morton-Thiokol Inc. ... Texas A&M University at College Station Texas A&M University, often Texas A&M, A&M or TAMU for short, is one of the flagship universities of Texas, and is the flagship institution of the Texas A&M University System. ... The University of Texas System comprises fifteen educational institutions in Texas, of which nine are general academic universities, and six are health institutions. ... Engineering ethics is the field of ethics describing the obligations of those who are professional engineers to their clients or employers, and their obligations to society as a whole. ...

The graphic designer Edward Tufte has used the Challenger accident as an example of the problems that can occur when information is incorrectly presented. He argues that if Morton Thiokol engineers had more clearly presented the data that they had on the relationship between cold temperatures and burn-through in the solid rocket booster joints, they might have succeeded in persuading NASA managers to cancel the launch.^[36] Edward Rolf Tufte (IPA /ˈtʌf. ...

References in popular culture

The afternoon of the Challenger disaster, taping of NBC's The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson went ahead as scheduled, however, guest host Joan Rivers chose not to deliver an opening monologue, instead speaking a few words of tribute to the Challenger crew before moving on to do a more somber-than-usual show. NBC (an abbreviation for National Broadcasting Company, its former corporate name) is an American television network based in New York Citys Rockefeller Center and is shown on basic cable in Canada. ... The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson was the full name of NBCs The Tonight Show during the years that Johnny Carson hosted from 1962 to 1992. ... Joan Rivers on the video cover Joan Rivers (born June 8, 1933) is an American comedian, talk show host, and celebrity. ...

In 1990, a television movie called Challenger was made about the events leading up to the launching of the shuttle. It was announced in May 2006 that another movie about the accident would be made, also called Challenger. The movie was to be directed by Philip Kaufman and would focus on the role of Richard Feynman in the ensuing investigation.^[37] Challenger is a film based on the events surrounding the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. ... Philip Kaufman (born October 23, 1936) is a film director and screenwriter from Chicago, Illinois. ... Richard Phillips Feynman (May 11, 1918 in Queens, New York – February 15, 1988 in Los Angeles, California) (surname pronounced FINE-man; in IPA) was an influential American physicist known for expanding greatly on the theory of quantum electrodynamics, particle theory, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium. ...

The Challenger accident has also been referenced in numerous other television shows and movies. An episode of the NBC television series Punky Brewster entitled "Accidents Happen," (first aired March 9, 1986) dealt with the title character's reaction to the disaster as she watched it on TV at school; the Farscape episode "Kansas" involved the main character traveling back in time in order to stop his astronaut father from becoming a crewmember on the Challenger mission. The movie Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home was dedicated to the memory of the Challenger crew, "whose courageous spirit shall live to the 23rd century and beyond."^[38] NBC (an abbreviation for National Broadcasting Company, its former corporate name) is an American television network based in New York Citys Rockefeller Center and is shown on basic cable in Canada. ... Punky Brewster was a popular sitcom in the 1980s. ... March 9 is the 68th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (69th in Leap years). ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Farscape (1999 – 2003) is a science fiction television series, featuring a present-day astronaut who accidentally travels through a wormhole to a distant part of the galaxy. ... Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (Paramount Pictures, 1986; see also 1986 in film) is the fourth feature film based on the popular Star Trek science fiction television series. ...

French electronic music artist Jean-Michel Jarre had composed a track on his album Rendez-Vous which he intended to be performed by Challenger astronaut Ronald McNair, a saxophonist and personal friend of Jarre. After McNair's death, Jarre dedicated the album to his memory, and performed a free concert in Houston in memory of the Challenger astronauts.^[39] John Denver also wrote a tribute to the crew of Challenger on his album One World, released June, 1986. The song was called Flying For Me, and ended with a 73 second instrumental to commemorate the flight's duration. Jean-Michel André Jarre (born August 24, 1948 in Lyon, France) is a French composer and producer. ... Rendezvous is the anglification of the French word Rendez-vous meaning appointment. (literally, meet you); it is pronounced RAHN-day-voo. ... Ronald Ewald McNair, Ph. ... John Denver (December 31, 1943 – October 12, 1997), born Henry John Deutschendorf, Jr. ...

Breaking Laces, a rock band from Brooklyn, NY, have a song on their album Lemonade called This World, written from the perspective of a grammar school student upon seeing the disaster live on TV while in class. Rock group (or later rock band) is a generic name to describe a group of musicians specializing in a particular form of electronically amplified music. ... Brooklyn (named for the Dutch city Breukelen) is one of the five boroughs of New York City. ...

In the 1989 PC Game Wing Commander, one of the Confederation's ships is named the TCS McAuliffe, apparently a tribute to the Challenger crewmember Christa McAuliffe. Sharon Christa Corrigan McAuliffe (September 2, 1948 – January 28, 1986), better known simply as Christa McAuliffe, and prior to her marriage, Christa Corrigan, was an American teacher from Concord, New Hampshire who was selected from among more than 11,000 applicants to be the first teacher in space. ...

In the 1996 Nickelodeon series Space Cases, the spaceship was named the Christa, after McAuliffe. Space Cases was a childrens science fiction television series that aired on Nickelodeon for two seasons. ...

Notes

1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For the United States holiday, the Fourth of July, see Independence Day (United States). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For the United States holiday, the Fourth of July, see Independence Day (United States). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For the United States holiday, the Fourth of July, see Independence Day (United States). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For the United States holiday, the Fourth of July, see Independence Day (United States). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... January 29 is the 29th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... January 29 is the 29th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 29 is the 302nd day of the year (303rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 29 is the 302nd day of the year (303rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... July 14 is the 195th day (196th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 170 days remaining. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 20 is the 324th day of the year (325th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Roger Boisjoly was an engineer who worked for Morton Thiokol, the manufacturer of the solid rocket boosters of the space shuttle. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 20 is the 324th day of the year (325th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 20 is the 324th day of the year (325th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 20 is the 324th day of the year (325th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Edward Rolf Tufte (IPA /ˈtʌf. ... May 24 is the 144th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (145th in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 21 is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 19 is the 323rd day of the year (324th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 19 is the 323rd day of the year (324th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

Further reading

• Harry Collins and Trevor Pinch. The Golem at Large: What you should know about technology. Includes chapter on the Challenger disaster.
• Richard Feynman. What Do You Care What Other People Think? ISBN 0-586-21855-6.
• Claus Jensen. (1996) No Downlink: A Dramatic Narrative about the Challenger Accident and Our Time. ISBN 0-374-12036-6
• Joseph Trento. (1988) Prescription for Disaster, ISBN 0-245-54615-4.
• Edward Tufte. (1997) Visual Explanations, ISBN 0-9613921-2-6, Chapter 2.
• Diane Vaughan. (1996) The Challenger Launch Decision: Risky Technology, Culture and Deviance at NASA ISBN 0-226-85176-1

Richard Phillips Feynman (May 11, 1918 in Queens, New York – February 15, 1988 in Los Angeles, California) (surname pronounced FINE-man; in IPA) was an influential American physicist known for expanding greatly on the theory of quantum electrodynamics, particle theory, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium. ... What Do You Care What Other People Think?: Further Adventures of a Curious Character is the second of two books consisting of transcribed and edited oral reminiscences from American physicist Richard Feynman. ... Edward Rolf Tufte (IPA /ˈtʌf. ...

External links

• Harwood, William; Rob Navias. Challenger timeline. Spaceflight Now. Retrieved on 2006-11-20.
• NASA History Office. Challenger STS 51-L Accident. NASA. Retrieved on 2006-11-20.
• Photo and TV Analysis Team Report. (1986). Space Shuttle Challenger Accident Investigation STS-51L Data and Analysis Task Force.
• Rogers Commission report (1986). Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident.

STS-51L Main articles: STS-51L, Space Shuttle Challenger, Space Shuttle Challenger disaster Crew: Scobee (Cmdr), Smith, Resnik, Onizuka, NcNair, Jarvis, McAuliffe