 Chemistry - the study of interactions of chemical substances with one another and energy based on the structure of atoms, molecules and other kinds of aggregrates Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem), meaning "earth"[1]) is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.[2] Chemistry is a physical science related to studies of various atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregrates of matter whether in isolation or combination. It also incorporates energy and entropy related studies to various chemical substances. Chemistry may refer to: Chemistry, the science of matter at or near the atomic scale Chemistry (album), an album by Girls Aloud Chemistry (band), a Japanese popular music R&B duo Chemistry (Buckshot album), an album by Buckshot & 9th Wonder Interpersonal chemistry, a reaction between people to each other Chemistry...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
For other uses, see Atom (disambiguation). ...
Chinese (Wu Xing) Japanese (Godai) Earth (地) | Water (æ°´) | Fire (ç«) | Air / Wind (風) | Void / Sky / Heaven (空) Hinduism (Tattva) and Buddhism (MahÄbhÅ«ta) Vayu / Pavan — Air / Wind Agni / Tejas — Fire Akasha — Aether Prithvi / Bhumi — Earth Ap / Jala — Water Bön New Zealand “The Four Elements†redirects here. ...
Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ...
In physics, matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed, not counting the contribution of various energy or force-fields, which are not usually considered to be matter per se (though they may contribute to the mass of objects). ...
Vapours of hydrogen chloride in a beaker and ammonia in a test tube meet to form a cloud of a new substance, ammonium chloride A chemical reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical substances. ...
Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science, and science (generally), that study non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. ...
For other uses, see Atom (disambiguation). ...
3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane. ...
Quartz crystal Synthetic bismuth hopper crystal Insulin crystals Gallium, a metal that easily forms large single crystals A huge monocrystal of potassium dihydrogen phosphate grown from solution by Saint-Gobain for the megajoule laser of CEA. In chemistry and mineralogy, a crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms...
Ice melting - classic example of entropy increasing[1] described in 1862 by Rudolf Clausius as an increase in the disgregation of the molecules of the body of ice. ...
Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is any material with a definite chemical composition, no matter where it comes from. ...
There are several specialized disciplines within chemistry, traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study, the main amongst them are:
Many more specialized disciplines have emerged (see Subdisciplines and applied fields). Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. ...
Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. ...
Organic chemistry is a specific discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of chemical compounds consisting of primarily carbon and hydrogen, which may contain any number of other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, halogens as well...
Benzene is the simplest of the arenes, a family of organic compounds An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon and hydrogen; therefore, carbides, carbonates, carbon oxides and elementary carbon are not organic (see below for more on the definition controversy...
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes and transformations in living organisms. ...
Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is any material with a definite chemical composition, no matter where it comes from. ...
In biology and ecology, an organism (in Greek organon = instrument) is a living being. ...
Physical chemistry is the application of physics to macroscopic, microscopic, atomic and particulate phenomena in chemical systems[1]within the field of chemistry traditionally using the principles, practices and concepts of thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and kinetics. ...
For the song by 311, see Grassroots Applied science is the exact science of applying knowledge from one or more natural scientific fields to practical problems. ...
Modern chemistry evolved out of alchemy following the chemical revolution (1773), through the reforms of many individuals, particularly French chemist Antoine Lavoisier who, among others, is considered the "father of modern chemistry". Other pioneers (fathers) of modern chemistry include: Robert Boyle (1661), John Dalton (1808),and Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1828), while some consider Geber (d. 815) to be the first chemist.[3][4][5] For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ...
The Chemical Revolution (or the first chemical revolution) denotes the reformulation of chemistry based on the Law of Conservation of Matter and the oxygen theory of combustion, and centered on the work of Antoine Lavoisier. ...
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794), the father of modern chemistry [1], was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and economics. ...
Revisions and sourced additions are welcome; please only include historical figures. ...
Robert Boyle Robert Boyle (25 January 1627 – 30 December 1691) was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ...
John Dalton John Dalton (September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844) was an English chemist and physicist, born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in Cumberland. ...
Friherre Jöns Jakob Berzelius (August 20, 1779 – August 7, 1848) was a Swedish chemist. ...
Jabir ibn Hayyan and Geber were also pen names of an anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist: see Pseudo-Geber. ...
Overview Chemistry is the scientific study of interaction of substances called chemical substances[6] that are constituted of atoms or the subatomic components that make up atoms: protons, electrons and neutrons.[7] Atoms combine to produce ions, molecules or crystals. Chemistry can be called "the central science" because it connects the other natural sciences, such as astronomy, physics, material science, biology, and geology.[8][9] Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is any material with a definite chemical composition, no matter where it comes from. ...
For other uses, see Atom (disambiguation). ...
In physics, the proton (Greek proton = first) is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of one positive fundamental unit (1. ...
e- redirects here. ...
This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...
This article is about the electrically charged particle. ...
3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane. ...
Quartz crystal Synthetic bismuth hopper crystal Insulin crystals Gallium, a metal that easily forms large single crystals A huge monocrystal of potassium dihydrogen phosphate grown from solution by Saint-Gobain for the megajoule laser of CEA. In chemistry and mineralogy, a crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms...
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into chemistry. ...
The Michelson–Morley experiment was used to disprove that light propagated through a luminiferous aether. ...
A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant Astronomy (also frequently referred to as astrophysics) is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). ...
This is a discussion of a present category of science. ...
Materials science includes those parts of chemistry and physics that deal with the properties of materials. ...
This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ...
This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ...
The genesis of chemistry can be traced to certain practices, known as alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world, particularly the middle east.[10] For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ...
These pages contain the trends of millennia and centuries. ...
The structure of objects we commonly use and the properties of the matter we commonly interact with, are a consequence of the properties of chemical substances and their interactions. For example, steel is harder than iron because its atoms are bound together in a more rigid crystalline lattice; wood burns or undergoes rapid oxidation because it can react spontaneously with oxygen in a chemical reaction above a certain temperature; sugar and salt dissolve in water because their molecular/ionic properties are such that dissolution is preferred under the ambient conditions. The steel cable of a colliery winding tower. ...
In materials science, hardness is the characteristic of a solid material expressing its resistance to permanent deformation. ...
Rose des Sables (Sand Rose), formed of gypsum crystals In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. ...
The most fundamental reactions in chemistry are the redox processes. ...
General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ...
Vapours of hydrogen chloride in a beaker and ammonia in a test tube meet to form a cloud of a new substance, ammonium chloride A chemical reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical substances. ...
Fig. ...
The transformations that are studied in chemistry are a result of interaction either between different chemical substances or between matter and energy. Traditional chemistry involves study of interactions between substances in a chemistry laboratory using various forms of laboratory glassware. In physics, matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed, not counting the contribution of various energy or force-fields, which are not usually considered to be matter per se (though they may contribute to the mass of objects). ...
Generally, an interaction is a kind of action which occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. ...
Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is any material with a definite chemical composition, no matter where it comes from. ...
This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
Brown glass jars with some clear lab glassware in the background Laboratory glassware refers to a variety of equipment, traditionally made of glass, used for scientific experiments and other work in science, especially in chemistry and biology laboratories. ...
 Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne A chemical reaction is a transformation of some such substances into one or more other such substances.[11] It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is most often equal. The nature of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws. ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 1555 KB) Lab bench. ...
ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 1555 KB) Lab bench. ...
Vapours of hydrogen chloride in a beaker and ammonia in a test tube meet to form a cloud of a new substance, ammonium chloride A chemical reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical substances. ...
A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction where the reactant entities are given on the left hand side and the product entities on the right hand side. ...
Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase as well as their chemical compositions. They can be analysed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography. Ice melting - classic example of entropy increasing[1] described in 1862 by Rudolf Clausius as an increase in the disgregation of the molecules of the body of ice. ...
This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
The chemical composition of a substance refers to the elements of which the substance is composed. ...
Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. ...
Extremely high resolution spectrogram of the Sun showing thousands of elemental absorption lines (fraunhofer lines) Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between radiation (electromagnetic radiation, or light, as well as particle radiation) and matter. ...
For the Second Person album, see Chromatography (album). ...
Chemistry is an integral part of the science curriculum both at the high school as well as the early college level. At these levels, it is often called 'general chemistry' which is an introduction to a wide variety of fundamental concepts that enable the student to acquire tools and skills useful at the advanced levels, whereby chemistry is invariably studied in any of its various sub-disciplines. Scientists, engaged in chemical research are known as chemists.[12] Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ...
This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
For a List of scientists, see: List of anthropologists List of astronomers List of biologists List of chemists List of computer scientists List of economists List of engineers List of geologists List of inventors List of mathematicians List of meteorologists List of physicists Scientist pairs List of scientist pairs See...
This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ...
A chemist is a scientist who specializes in chemistry. ...
History -
- See also: Alchemy, Timeline of chemistry, and Nobel Prize in Chemistry
The genesis of chemistry can be traced to the widely observed phenomenon of burning that led to metallurgy- the art and science of processing ores to get metals (e.g. metallurgy in ancient India). The greed for gold led to the discovery of the process for its purification, even though, the underlying principles were not well understood -- it was thought to be a transformation rather than purification. Many scholars in those days thought it reasonable to believe that there exist means for transforming cheaper (base) metals into gold. This gave way to alchemy, and the search for the Philosopher's Stone, which was believed to bring about such a transformation by mere touch.[13] Image File history File links Antoine_lavoisier_color. ...
is the 238th day of the year (239th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...
// Events February 14 - Henry Pelham becomes British Prime Minister February 21 - - The premiere in London of George Frideric Handels oratorio, Samson. ...
This article is about the capital of France. ...
is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...
1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...
This article is about the capital of France. ...
Face-to-face trading interactions on the New York Stock Exchange trading floor. ...
Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ...
Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife, by Jacques-Louis David The history of chemistry may be said to begin with the distinction of chemistry from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist (1661). ...
For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ...
Timeline of chemistry lists important works, discoveries, ideas, inventions, and experiments that significantly changed mankinds understanding of the composition of matter and of the interactions thereof, the modern science known as chemistry. ...
This is a list of Nobel Prize laureates in Chemistry from 1901 to 2006. ...
A combustion reaction taking place in a igniting match Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames. ...
Georg Agricola, author of De re metallica, an important early book on metal extraction Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. ...
Ayas. ...
The philosophers stone, in Latin lapis philosophi, is a legendary substance that supposedly could turn inexpensive metals such as lead into gold (chrysopoeia in the Greek language) and/or create an elixir that would make humans younger, thus delaying death. ...
Some consider medieval Muslims to be the earliest chemists, who introduced precise observation and controlled experimentation into the field, and discovered numerous chemical substances.[14] The most influential Muslim chemists were Geber (d. 815), al-Kindi (d. 873), al-Razi (d. 925), and al-Biruni (d. 1048).[15] The works of Geber became more widely known in Europe through Latin translations by a pseudo-Geber in 14th century Spain, who also wrote some of his own books under the pen name "Geber". The contribution of Indian alchemists and metallurgists in the development of chemistry was also quite significant.[16] Alchemy in Islam differs from the general alchemy in certain ways, one of which is that Muslim alchemists didnt believe in the creation of life in the laboratory. ...
Observation is an activity of a sapient or sentient living being (e. ...
In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex- periri, of (or from) trying) is a set of observations performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question, to support or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. ...
Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is any material with a definite chemical composition, no matter where it comes from. ...
Jabir ibn Hayyan and Geber were also pen names of an anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist: see Pseudo-Geber. ...
Abū-Yūsuf Ya’qūb ibn Ishāq al-Kindī (c. ...
This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
(September 15, 973 in Kath, Khwarezm – December 13, 1048 in Ghazni) was a Persian[1][2][3] Muslim polymath[4] of the 11th century, whose experiments and discoveries were as significant and diverse as those of Leonardo da Vinci or Galileo, five hundred years before the Renaissance; al-Biruni was...
Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ...
Pseudo-Geber (false Geber) is the name assigned by modern scholars to an anonymous alchemist born in the 14th century, probably in Spain. ...
Ayas. ...
The emergence of chemistry in Europe was primarily due to the recurrent incidence of the plague and blights there during the so called Dark Ages. This gave rise to a need for medicines. It was thought that there exists a universal medicine called the Elixir of Life that can cure all diseases, but like the Philosopher's Stone, it was never found. The bubonic plague or bubonic fever is the best-known variant of the deadly infectious disease caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis. ...
This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ...
The elixir of life, also known as the elixir of immortality or Dancing Water and sometimes equated with the Philosophers stone, is a legendary potion, or drink, that grants the drinker eternal life or eternal youth. ...
For some practitioners alchemy was an intellectual pursuit, over time, they got better at it. Paracelsus (1493-1541), for example, rejected the 4-elemental theory and with only a vague understanding of his chemicals and medicines, formed a hybrid of alchemy and science in what was to be called iatrochemistry. Similarly, the influences of philosophers such as Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and René Descartes (1596-1650), who demanded more rigor in mathematics and in removing bias from scientific observations, led to a scientific revolution. In chemistry, this began with Robert Boyle (1627-1691), who discovered gases, and came up with equations that were known as Boyle's Law.[17] Chemistry indeed came of age when Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), developed the theory of Conservation of mass in 1783; and the development of the Atomic Theory by John Dalton around 1800. The Law of Conservation of Mass resulted in the reformulation of chemistry based on this law and the oxygen theory of combustion, which was largely based on the work of Lavoisier. Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature and made contibution to the modern metric system. Lavoisier also worked to translate the archaic and technical language of chemistry into something that could be easily understood by the largely uneducated masses, leading to an increased public interest in chemistry. All these advances in chemistry led to what is usually called the chemical revolution. The contributions of Lavoisier led to what is now called modern chemistry - the chemistry that is studied in educational institutions all over the world. It is because of these and other contribtuions that Antoine Lavoisier is often celebrated as the "Father of Modern Chemistry". The later discovery of Friedrich Wöhler that many natural substances, the Organic compounds, can indeed be synthesized in a chemistry laboratory also helped the modern chemistry to mature from its infancy. Presumed portrait of Paracelsus, attributed to the school of Quentin Matsys. ...
Iatrochemistry is a branch of both chemistry and medicine. ...
Sir Francis Bacon Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans (January 22, 1561 - April 9, 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, and essayist. ...
René Descartes (French IPA: ) (March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650), also known as Renatus Cartesius (latinized form), was a highly influential French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. ...
The event which many historians of science call the scientific revolution can be dated roughly as having begun in 1543, the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) and Andreas Vesalius published his De humani corporis fabrica (On the...
Robert Boyle Robert Boyle (25 January 1627 – 30 December 1691) was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ...
Boyles law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle Mariotte law) is one of the gas laws. ...
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794), the father of modern chemistry [1], was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and economics. ...
The law of conservation of mass/matter, also known as law of mass/matter conservation (or the Lomonosov-Lavoisier law), states that the mass of a closed system of substances will remain constant, regardless of the processes acting inside the system. ...
In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms, as opposed to obsolete beliefs that matter could be divided into any arbitrarily small quantity. ...
John Dalton John Dalton (September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844) was an English chemist and physicist, born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in Cumberland. ...
Phlogiston theory was a 17th century attempt to explain oxidation processes, such as fire and rust. ...
The Chemical Revolution (or the first chemical revolution) denotes the reformulation of chemistry based on the Law of Conservation of Matter and the oxygen theory of combustion, and centered on the work of Antoine Lavoisier. ...
Friedrich Wöhler (July 31, 1800 - September 23, 1882) was a German chemist, best-known for his synthesis of urea, but also the first to isolate several of the elements. ...
Benzene is the simplest of the arenes, a family of organic compounds An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon and hydrogen; therefore, carbides, carbonates, carbon oxides and elementary carbon are not organic (see below for more on the definition controversy...
This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history from the days of alchemy and culminating in the creation of the periodic table of the chemical elements by Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)[18] and later discoveries of some synthetic elements. The discovery of the elements known to exist today is presented here in chronological order. ...
For a diagram of the periodic table, see standard periodic table below. ...
Portrait of Dimitri Mendeleyev by Ilya Repin Dmitri Mendeleev (Russian: , Dmitriy Ivanovich Mendeleyev ) (8 February [O.S. 27 January] 1834 in Tobolsk – 2 February [O.S. 20 January] 1907 in Saint Petersburg), was a Russian chemist. ...
The chemical elements labeled as synthetic are unstable, with a half-life so short (ranging from a fraction of millisecond to a few million years) relative to the age of the Earth that any atoms of that element that may have been present when the Earth formed have long since...
Etymology -
The word chemistry comes from the earlier study of alchemy, which is basically the quest to make gold from earthen starting materials.[19] As to the origin of the word "alchemy" the question is a debatable one; it certainly can be traced back to the Greeks, and some, following E. Wallis Budge, have also asserted Egyptian origins. Alchemy, generally, derives from the old French alkemie from the Arabic al-kimia - "the art of transformation". The Arabs borrowed the word "kimia" from the Greeks when they conquered Alexandria in the year 642 AD. A tentative outline is as follows: In the history of science, the etymology of the word chemistry is a debatable issue. ...
Nickname: Alexandria on the map of Egypt Map of Alexandria Coordinates: , Country Egypt Founded 334 BC Government - Governor Adel Labib Population (2001) - City 3,500,000 Time zone EET (UTC+2) - Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3) Twin Cities - Baltimore United States - Cleveland United States - Constanţa Romania - Durban South Africa...
- Egyptian alchemy [5,000 BCE – 400 BCE], formulate early "element" theories such as the Ogdoad.
- Greek alchemy [332 BCE – 642 CE], the Greek king Alexander the Great conquers Egypt and founds Alexandria, having the world's largest library, where scholars and "wise" men gather to study.
- Arabian alchemy [642 CE – 1200], the Arabs take over Alexandria; Jabir is the main chemist
- European alchemy [1300 – present], Pseudo-Geber builds on Arabic chemistry
- Chemistry [1661], Boyle writes his classic chemistry text The Sceptical Chymist
- Chemistry [1787], Lavoisier writes his classic Elements of Chemistry
- Chemistry [1803], Dalton publishes his Atomic Theory
Thus, an alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry". In Egyptian mythology, the Ogdoad are the eight deities worshipped in Hermopolis. ...
For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ...
Alchemy in Islam differs from the general alchemy in certain ways, one of which is that Muslim alchemists didnt believe in the creation of life in the laboratory. ...
Jabir ibn Hayyan and Geber were also pen names of an anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist: see Pseudo-Geber. ...
Pseudo-Geber (false Geber) is the name assigned by modern scholars to an anonymous alchemist born in the 14th century, probably in Spain. ...
Robert Boyle Robert Boyle (25 January 1627 – 30 December 1691) was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ...
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794), the father of modern chemistry [1], was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and economics. ...
John Dalton John Dalton (September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844) was an English chemist and physicist, born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in Cumberland. ...
Definitions In retrospect, the definition of chemistry seems to invariably change per decade, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. Shown below, for example, are some of the standard definitions used by various noted chemists: - Alchemy (330) – the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies (Zosimos).[20]
- Chymistry (1661) – the subject of the material principles of mixt bodies (Boyle).[21]
- Chymistry (1663) – a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to an higher perfection (Glaser).[22]
- Chemistry (1730) – the art of resolving mixt, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles (Stahl).[23]
- Chemistry (1837) – the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces (Dumas).[24]
- Chemistry (1947) – the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances (Pauling).[25]
- Chemistry (1998) – the study of matter and the changes it undergoes (Chang).[26]
Zosimos of Panopolis was a Greek alchemist from the end of the 3rd century, beginning of the 4th A.D., who was born in Panopolis, present day Akhmim in the South of Egypt, ca. ...
Robert Boyle Robert Boyle (25 January 1627 – 30 December 1691) was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ...
Christopher Glaser, a pharmaceutical chemist of the 17th century, was a native of Basel, became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris and apothecary to Louis XIV and to the duke of Orleans. ...
Georg Ernst Stahl (October 21, 1660 - May 24, 1734), was a German chemist and physician. ...
Jean Baptiste Andr Dumas Jean Baptiste Andr Dumas (July 14, 1800 - April 10, 1884), French chemist, best known for his works on organic analysis and synthesis, as well as the determination of atomic weights (relative atomic masses) by measuring vapor densities. ...
Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American quantum chemist and biochemist. ...
Raymond Chang is a professor at Williams College in the Department of Chemistry. ...
Basic concepts Several concepts are essential for the study of chemistry, some of them are:[27] A concept is an abstract, universal psychical entity that serves to designate a category or class of entities, events or relations. ...
Atom -
An atom is the basic unit of an element. It is a collection of matter consisting of a positively charged core (the atomic nucleus) which contains protons and neutrons, and which maintains a number of electrons to balance the positive charge in the nucleus. Atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain some of the chemical properties of the element, viz. Electronegativity, Ionization potential, Preferred oxidation state(s), Coordination number, Preferred types of bonds to form e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent. For other uses, see Atom (disambiguation). ...
The nucleus of an atom is the very small dense region, of positive charge, in its centre consisting of nucleons (protons and neutrons). ...
For alternative meanings see proton (disambiguation). ...
Properties In physics, the neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass of 940 MeV/c² (1. ...
e- redirects here. ...
Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract electrons in the context of a chemical bond. ...
The ionization potential, or ionization energy, of an atom or molecule is the energy required to strip it of an electron. ...
In chemistry, the oxidation state is an indicator of the degree of oxidation of an atom in a chemical compound. ...
In chemistry coordination number (c. ...
A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between atoms and molecules, and that which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic chemical compounds. ...
For alternative meanings see metal (disambiguation). ...
This article is about the electrically charged particle. ...
Covalent bonding is a form of chemical bonding characterized by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between atoms, in order to produce a mutual attraction, which holds the resultant molecule together. ...
Element -
The concept of chemical element is related to that of chemical substance. A chemical element is characterized by a particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms. This number is known as the atomic number of the element. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the element uranium. However, several isotopes of an element, that differ from one another in the number of neutrons present in the nucleus, may exist. The periodic table of the chemical elements A chemical element, or element, is a type of atom that is defined by its atomic number; that is, by the number of protons in its nucleus. ...
In physics, the proton (Greek proton = first) is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of one positive fundamental unit (1. ...
The nucleus of an atom is the very small dense region, of positive charge, in its centre consisting of nucleons (protons and neutrons). ...
It has been suggested that List of elements by atomic number be merged into this article or section. ...
General Name, symbol, number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Standard atomic weight 12. ...
General Name, symbol, number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, period, block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Standard atomic weight 238. ...
Isotopes are any of the several different forms of an element each having different atomic mass (mass number). ...
The most convenient presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table of the chemical elements, which groups elements by atomic number. Due to its ingenious arrangement, groups, or columns, and periods, or rows, of elements in the table either share several chemical properties, or follow a certain trend in characteristics such as atomic radius, electronegativity, etc. Lists of the elements by name, by symbol, and by atomic number are also available. For a diagram of the periodic table, see standard periodic table below. ...
A periodic table group is a vertical column in the periodic table of the chemical elements. ...
Look up period in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Period, and periodic, is part of many concepts: In astronomy Orbital period. ...
Atomic radius: Ionic radius Covalent radius Metallic radius van der Waals radius edit Atomic radius, and more generally the size of an atom, is not a precisely defined physical quantity, nor is it constant in all circumstances. ...
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract electrons in the context of a chemical bond. ...
This is a list of chemical elements, sorted by name and color coded according to type of element. ...
Categories: Chemical elements ...
Compound -
A compound is a substance with a particular ratio of atoms of particular chemical elements which determines its composition, and a particular organization which determines chemical properties. For example, water is a compound containing hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of two to one, with the oxygen between the hydrogens, and an angle of 104.5° between them. Compounds are formed and interconverted by chemical reactions. A chemical compound is a chemical substance of two or more different chemically bonded chemical elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. ...
The periodic table of the chemical elements A chemical element, or element, is a type of atom that is defined by its atomic number; that is, by the number of protons in its nucleus. ...
Chemical structure refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule and the chemical bonds that hold the atoms together. ...
This article describes water from a scientific and technical perspective. ...
General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ...
General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ...
Vapours of hydrogen chloride in a beaker and ammonia in a test tube meet to form a cloud of a new substance, ammonium chloride A chemical reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical substances. ...
Substance -
A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties. Strictly speaking, a mixture of compounds, elements or compounds and elements is not a chemical substance, but it may be called a chemical. Most of the substances we encounter in our daily life are some kind of mixture, e.g. air, alloys, biomass etc. Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is any material with a definite chemical composition, no matter where it comes from. ...
The chemical composition of a substance refers to the elements of which the substance is composed. ...
Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...
Layers of Atmosphere—not to scale (NOAA) [1] Earths atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earths gravity. ...
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, and where the resulting material has metallic properties. ...
See biomass (ecology) for the use of the term in ecology, where it refers to the cumulation of living matter Switchgrass, a tough plant used in the biofuel industry in the United States Rice chaff. ...
Nomenclature of substances is a critical part of the language of chemistry. Generally it refers to a system for naming chemical compounds. Earlier in the history of chemistry substances were given name by their discoverer, which often led to some confusion and difficulty. However, today the IUPAC system of chemical nomenclature allows chemists to specify by name specific compounds amongst the infinite variety of possible chemicals. The standard nomenclature of chemical substances is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). There are well-defined systems in place for naming chemical species. Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system.[28] Inorganic compounds are named according to the inorganic nomenclature system.[29] In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service has devised a method to index chemical substance. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a numeric number known as CAS registry number. A chemical compound is a chemical substance of two or more different chemically bonded chemical elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. ...
IUPAC logo The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) (Pronounced as eye-you-pack) is an international non-governmental organization established in 1919 devoted to the advancement of chemistry. ...
Benzene is the simplest of the arenes, a family of organic compounds An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon and hydrogen; therefore, carbides, carbonates, carbon oxides and elementary carbon are not organic (see below for more on the definition controversy...
Organic nomenclature is the system established for naming and grouping organic compounds. ...
Traditionally, inorganic compounds are considered to be of mineral, not biological, origin. ...
Inorganic nomenclature is a systematic way of naming inorganic compounds. ...
Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) is a division of the American Chemical Society, and produces Chemical Abstracts, and related products. ...
CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for chemical compounds, polymers, biological sequences, mixtures and alloys. ...
Molecule -
A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion, beside an atom, of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. Molecules can exist as electrically neutral units unlike ions. Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs. 3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane. ...
Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is any material with a definite chemical composition, no matter where it comes from. ...
In mathematics, a set can be thought of as any collection of distinct objects considered as a whole. ...
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Covalent bonding is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms, or sometimes between atoms and other covalent bonds. ...
A lone pair is an electron pair without bonding or sharing with other atoms. ...
 A molecular structure depicts the bonds and relative positions of atoms in a molecule such as that in Paclitaxel shown here One of the main characteristic of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (818x448, 9 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Chemistry Portal:Chemistry/Selected picture Talk:Nicolaou Taxol total synthesis User:Xxpor Portal:Chemistry/Selected picture/5 ...
Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (818x448, 9 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Chemistry Portal:Chemistry/Selected picture Talk:Nicolaou Taxol total synthesis User:Xxpor Portal:Chemistry/Selected picture/5 ...
Paclitaxel is a drug used in the treatment of cancer. ...
Geometry of the water molecule Molecules have fixed equilibrium geometries--bond lengths and angles--that are dictated by the laws of quantum mechanics. ...
Mole -
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules or ions) as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram (or 12 grams) of carbon-12, where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their ground state.[30] The number of atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12 is known as the Avogadro constant, and is determined empirically. The currently accepted value is 6.02214179(30)×1023 mol-1 (2007 CODATA). It is much like the term "a dozen" in that it is an absolute number (having no units) and can describe any type of elementary object, although the mole's use is usually limited to measurement of subatomic, atomic, and molecular structures. The mole (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit that measures an amount of substance. ...
Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is any material with a definite chemical composition, no matter where it comes from. ...
The kilogram or kilogramme (symbol: kg) is the SI base unit of mass. ...
BIC pen cap, about 1 gram. ...
Carbon 12 is a stable isotope of the element carbon. ...
In physics, the ground state of a quantum mechanical system is its lowest-energy state. ...
The Avogadro constant (symbols: L, NA), also called the Avogadro number and, in German scientific literature, sometimes also known as the Loschmidt constant/number, is formally defined to be the number of entities in one mole,[1][2] that is the number of carbon-12 atoms in 12 grams (0. ...
CODATA (Committee on Data for Science and Technology) was established in 1966 as an interdisciplinary committee of the International Council of Science (ICSU), formerly the International Council of Scientific Unions. ...
Dozen is another word for the number twelve. ...
Helium atom (not to scale) Showing two protons (red), two neutrons (green) and a probability cloud (gray) of two electrons (yellow). ...
For other uses, see Atom (disambiguation). ...
3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane. ...
The number of moles of a substance in one liter of a solution is known as its molarity. Molarity is the common unit used to express the concentration of a solution in physical chemistry. Making a saline water solution by dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water This article is about chemical solutions. ...
This page refers to concentration in the chemical sense. ...
In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance. ...
Physical chemistry is the application of physics to macroscopic, microscopic, atomic and particulate phenomena in chemical systems[1]within the field of chemistry traditionally using the principles, practices and concepts of thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and kinetics. ...
Ions and Salts -
An ion is a charged species, or an atom or a molecule that has lost or gained one or more electrons. Positively charged cations (e.g. sodium cation Na+) and negatively charged anions (e.g. chloride Cl−) can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts (e.g. sodium chloride NaCl). Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide (OH−) and phosphate (PO43−). This article is about the electrically charged particle. ...
An ion is an atom or group of atoms with a net electric charge. ...
For sodium in the diet, see Edible salt. ...
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The chloride ion is formed when the element chlorine picks up one electron to form an anion (negatively-charged ion) Cl−. The salts of hydrochloric acid HCl contain chloride ions and can also be called chlorides. ...
For other uses, see Salt (disambiguation). ...
Jordanian and Israeli salt evaporation ponds at the south end of the Dead Sea Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or halite, is a chemical compound with the formula NaCl. ...
An electrostatic potential map of the nitrate ion (NO3−). Areas coloured red are lower in energy than areas coloured yellow A polyatomic ion is a molecule that bears ionic groups, that is, a molecule with a charge. ...
Acids and bases: Acid-base reaction theories pH Self-ionization of water Buffer solutions Systematic naming Electrochemistry Acid-base extraction Acids: Strong acids Weak acids Mineral acids Organic acids Bases: Strong bases Weak bases Organic bases edit An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction between an acid and a...
Hydroxide is a polyatomic ion consisting of oxygen and hydrogen: OH− It has a charge of −1. ...
Above is a ball-and-stick model of the inorganic hydrogenphosphate anion (HPO42−). Colour coding: P (orange); O (red); H (white). ...
Ions in the gaseous phase is often known as plasma. A plasma lamp, illustrating some of the more complex phenomena of a plasma, including filamentation. ...
Phase -
In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature. Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the phase transition, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. In the physical sciences, a phase is a set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (i. ...
In mathematics, a set can be thought of as any collection of distinct objects considered as a whole. ...
The use of water pressure - the Captain Cook Memorial Jet in Lake Burley Griffin in Canberra, Australia. ...
Fig. ...
In physics, density is mass m per unit volume V. For the common case of a homogeneous substance, it is expressed as: where, in SI units: Ï (rho) is the density of the substance, measured in kg·m-3 m is the mass of the substance, measured in kg V is...
The refractive index (or index of refraction) of a medium is a measure for how much the speed of light (or other waves such as sound waves) is reduced inside the medium. ...
In physics, a phase transition, (or phase change) is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase to another. ...
Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. A supercritical fluid is any substance at a temperature and pressure above its thermodynamic critical point. ...
In physics, the triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure at which three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance may coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. ...
The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principle difference between solid phases is the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology. For other uses, see Solid (disambiguation). ...
A liquid will usually assume the shape of its container A liquid is one of the main states of matter. ...
This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ...
Enargite crystals In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. ...
A Plasma lamp In physics and chemistry, a plasma is an ionized gas, and is usually considered to be a distinct phase of matter. ...
A Bose–Einstein condensate is a phase of matter formed by bosons cooled to temperatures very near to absolute zero (0 kelvins or -273. ...
This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...
Simple Illustration of a paramagnetic probe made up from miniature magnets. ...
Ferromagnetism is the phenomenon by which materials, such as iron, in an external magnetic field become magnetized and remain magnetized for a period after the material is no longer in the field. ...
For other uses, see Magnet (disambiguation). ...
This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ...
Chemical bond -
A chemical bond is a concept for understanding how atoms stick together in molecules. It may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them.[31] More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom. These potentials create the |
