Chera territories
Official languages	Tamil Malayalam
Capitals	Vanchi Muthur Karur
Government	Monarchy
Preceding state	Unknown
Succeeding states	Hoysala, Vijayanagara empire

The Chera dynasty (Tamil: சேரர் Malayalam: ചേര ) were one of the ancient Tamil dynasties who ruled the southern India from ancient times until around the fifteenth century CE. The Early Cheras ruled over the Malabar Coast, Coimbatore, Karur and Salem Districts in South India, which now forms part of the modern day Kerala and Tamilnadu states of India. The other two major Tamil dynasties were the Cholas in the eastern Coromandel Coast and Pandyas in the south central peninsula. These dynasties began ruling before the Sangam era (100BCE - 200CE) during which the Tamil language, arts and literature flourished. Image File history File links Chera_territories. ... An official language is a language that is given a privileged legal status in a state, or other legally-defined territory. ... Tamil (தமிழ் ) is a classical language and one of the major languages of the Dravidian language family. ... Malayalam (മലയാളം ) is the language spoken predominantly in the state of Kerala, in southern India. ... In politics, a capital (also called capital city or political capital — although the latter phrase has an alternative meaning based on an alternative sense of capital) is the principal city or town associated with its government. ... Karur is a city in Tamil Nadu state of southern India. ... Places where monarchies maintain rule appear in blue. ... The Hoysala Empire ruled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... Tamil (தமிழ் ) is a classical language and one of the major languages of the Dravidian language family. ... Malayalam (മലയാളം ) is the language spoken predominantly in the state of Kerala, in southern India. ... The Tamil people are an ethnic group from South Asia with a recorded history going back more than two millennia. ... South India is a geographic and linguistic-cultural region of India. ... Malabar Coast, Kerala Bekal Fort Beach, Kerala The Malabar Coast also known as the Malabarian Coast, is a long and narrow south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. ... Kerala ( (Anglicised) or (native); Malayalamകേരളം, — ) is a state on the tropical Malabar Coast of southwestern India. ... The Cholas were a South Indian Tamil dynasty, antedating the early Sangam literature (c. ... The Coromandel Coast is the name given to the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula. ... The Pandyan kingdom was an ancient state at the tip of South India, founded around the 6th century BCE. It was part of the Dravidian cultural area, which also comprised other kingdoms such as that of the Pallava, the Chera, the Chola, the Chalukya and the Vijayanagara. ... now. ... Tamil (தமிழ் ) is a classical language and one of the major languages of the Dravidian language family. ... Tamil literature is literature in the Tamil language which most prominently includes the contributions of the Tamil country (or Tamizhagam) history, a large part of which constitutes the modern state of Tamil Nadu and Kerala as well as some parts of Karnataka and Andra pradesh. ...

The Chera capital was Vanchi Muthur, whose exact location is still not known.(most probably near the present day Kodungallur, in Thrissur district of Kerala.)^[1] Chera rulers warred frequently with their neighbouring kingdoms. They sometimes inter-married with the families of the rival kings as a means of political alliances. Throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to Kerala, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to the Middle East and to southern Europe. Evidence for extensive foreign trade from ancient times are available throughout the Malabar coast.

While Cheras had their own religion, many other religious traditions came to this area during the period of the Chera kings. Both Buddhism and Jainism came to Kerala by the second century BCE. Trade with the Middle East established early contact with Judaism. Christianity may also have made early inroads.^[2] Aryanization of religion took place after the Early Chera Dynasty declined in the third century CE, though there is a single reference to a Brahmin as Court Poet Palai Gauthamanar during the reign of Chera King, Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan. A replica of an ancient statue of Gautama Buddha, found in Sarnath, near Varanasi. ... Jaina redirects here. ... Kerala ( (Anglicised) or (native); Malayalamകേരളം, — ) is a state on the tropical Malabar Coast of southwestern India. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on Jesus of Nazareth, and on his life and teachings as presented in the New Testament. ...

History

In early Tamil literature the Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan, Azhiyan, Irumporai and Cheralathan depending on the positions these rulers held in the past. Chera rulers of the Malabar Coast were also called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in general. The word Kerala, of possible Prakrit origins, does not appear in Sangam Literature. The first known mention of Kerala occurs on one of the rock inscriptions left by Ashoka during the third century B.C. Ashoka's edicts mention an independent dynasty known by the name Keralaputra, who were outside Ashoka's empire. The unknown author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny, the Roman historian of the first century, calls it Caelobothras. Sangam Literature is the collective name for the Tamil literature created over 1800 years ago. ... Allegiance: Magadhan Empire Rank: Emperor Succeeded by: Dasaratha Maurya Reign: 273 BC-232 BC Place of birth: Pataliputra, India Battles/Wars Kalinga War Emperor Ashoka the Great (Devanagari: अशोक(:); IAST transliteration: , pronunciation: ) (304 BC–232 BC) (Imperial Title:Devanampiya Piyadassi ie He who is the beloved of the Gods who, in... The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by the Mauryan king Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. SAlMAN Ashish Many of the pillars are carved with proclamations reflecting Buddhist teachings: the Edicts of Ashoka. ... The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei ) is a Greek periplus, describing navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along East Africa and India. ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19c portrait. ...

Early Cheras

The only source available for us regarding the early Chera Kings is the anthologies of the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries CE.^[3] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these are not worked into connected history so far. Sangam Literature is the collective name for the Tamil literature created over 1800 years ago. ...

Pathirruppaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology mentions a number of Chera Kings of the Chera dynasty. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and the Kings are in the following order: 1. Nedum Cheralathan, 2. Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan, 3. Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral, 4. Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan, 5. Attu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan, 6. Chelva Kadunko Azhi Athan, 7. Thakadur Erintha Perum Cheral Irumporai, and 8. Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai. The first two kings were the sons of Uthiyan Cheralathan and Veliyan Nallini. The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan, while mother of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was Chola Pricess Manikilli. Chelva Kadunko Azhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan Cheral Irumporai and Porayan Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son of Azhiyathan and Ilam Cheral Irumporai was the son of a chera ruler Kuttuvan Irumporai (son of Mantharan Cheral Irumporai).^{[citation needed]} Pathirruppaththu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து), is the fourth book in the Ettuthokai, a Sangam literature anthology. ... Ettuthokai (எட்டுத்தொகை)– The Eight Anthologies - form part of the Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology series of the Sangam Literature. ...

Archaeology has also found epigraphic evidence regarding these early Cheras.^[4] The most important of these is the Pugalur (Aranattarmalai) inscription. This inscription refers to three generations of Chera rulers Adam Cheral Irrumporai, his son Perumkadungo, and his son Ilamkadungo. The charter was issued when Perum Kadungo was the ruler monarch and Ilam Kadungo was appointed prince. Athan refers only to a crowned King of Chera dynasty who accepted this title at the time of coronation. Athan Cheral Irumporai was the son of Perum Cheral Irumporai. It therefore follows that Perumkadungo was the son of a Crowned King of the Chera Dynasty. Perum Kadunko means that he was the Senior Ko (Senior ruler) of Kadunadu, located in the Tamilnadu side of the Sahya Moutains.

'Purananuru' refers to Udiyan Cheral, who probably ruled in the first – second centuries CE. It is said that he fed the rival armies during the war of Mahabharata. Such wild claims were common in the early Tamil poetry. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, another Sangam age king claimed to have conquered up to the Himalayas and to have inscribed his emblem in the face of the mountains. Senguttuvan was another famous Chera, whose contemporary Gajabahu II of Lanka according to Mahavamsa visited the Chera country.^[5] Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ), is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... Perspective view of the Himalayas and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau. ... Senguttuvan was a Chera king who probably lived during the early centuries of the Common Era. ... Lanka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the evil king Ravana in the epic Ramayana. ... The Mahavamsa, also Mahawamsa, (Pāli: great chronicle) is a historical record, written in the Pāli language, of the Buddhist kings of Sri Lanka. ...

The early Cheras controlled a large territory from Karur in Tamil Nadu to Muzris in the west coast. They were in contact with the Satavahanas in the north and with the Romans and Greeks.^[6] Trade flourished with the overseas countries and there was a considerable exchange of gold and coins, as seen by the archaeological evidence and literature. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper) and Precious Stones and a large number of Roman coins have been found in sites on the Malabar coast as well as in the districts of Coimbatore, Karur and Salem in Tamilnadu. Approximate extent of the Satavahana Empire, circa 150 CE. The Sātavāhanas, also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates... The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ...

Medieval Cheras

Little is known about the Cheras between c. third century CE and the eight century CE. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century CE. A Pandya ruler, Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman (c.730 – 765CE), mentioned in a number of Pandya copper-plate inscriptions, was a prominent ruler during this period. He claims to have defeated a prominent Chera king. The name of the Chera king is not known, however from the details of the battles between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera territory seems to have included the entire Malabar coastand the southern Pandya country from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli. The Chera kings took the title of Perumal during this period and patronised the Vaishnavite sect. Pallavas also mention in their inscriptions about their battles with the Cheras. Pulakesin II, in his Aihole inscription mentioned " Pulikesin II, driving the Pallava behind the forts of Kanchi, reached as far south as the Kaveri river, and there caused prosperity to the Chola, Kerala and Pandya".^[7] Kalabhras were the South Indian dynasty who between the 3rd and the 6th century C.E. ruled over entire Tamil country, displacing the ancient Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties. ... The Pandyan kingdom was an ancient state at the tip of South India, founded around the 6th century BCE. It was part of the Dravidian cultural area, which also comprised other kingdoms such as that of the Pallava, the Chera, the Chola, the Chalukya and the Vijayanagara. ... The Tiruvalluvar statue The Vivekananda memorial The Gandhi Mandepam Kanyakumari is a town and a cape at the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula. ... Tirunelveli is a city in Tamil Nadu state of southern India. ... Vaishnavites are followers of Vaishnavism in which Vishnu or His avatars are worshipped as the supreme God. ... Pulakesi II (c. ... Aihole123 is now in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. ...

In the 8th century, the Cheras were alternating their location between Karur in Tiruchy district and near Thruvandapuram on the west coast. In the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 – 790), the Cheras were still in Karur and were a close ally of the Pallavas. Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king. Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.^[8] Two of the Chera kigns of this period, The Saivite saint Cheraman Perumal and the other is the Vaishnavite Saint Kulasekhara, were famous in the Hindu religious movements. Kulasekhara became one of the celebrated Alvars and his poems came to be called the Perumal Thirumozhi. Cheraman Perumal ruled around the eighth and the ninth centuries. Adi Shankara was his contemporary. Rajasekhara Varman (820-44) marked the beginning of the Kollam Era in 825. He is also reputed to have issued the Vazhappali Inscription, the first epigraphical record of the Second Chera Kingdom. Rajasekhara Varma was followed by Sthanu Ravi Varman (844-55), a contemporary of the Chola King, Aditya I. With the rise of the Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty around the middle of the ninth century, the Cheras found that they had to deal with another powerful contender. Aditya I, (c. 871 – c. 907 CE) expanded the Chola kingdom defeating the Pallavas. He was in friendly terms with the Chera king Sthanu Ravi.^[9] Aditya married one of Sthanu Ravi's daughter. Sankaranarayana, who composed the astronomical work Sankaranarayaniyam, adorned his court. The Pallavas were hereditary Hindu rulers who dominated southeastern India between the 4th and 9th centuries. ... Saivite: of Saivism; belonging to Saivism, the Hindu denomination that worships God Siva as the Supreme God. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ... One of the twelve Alvars, born in the asterism Punarvasu, Kulasekara-azhvaar ruled the Chera Kingdom. ... The Alvars are Hindu saints, followers of Lord Vishnu. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ... Adi Shankara with the Four Disciples Adi Shankara (Åšankara, Shri Shankaracharya, Adhi Shankaracharya, Ä€di Åšhankarācārya; the first Shankara in his lineage), reverentially called Bhagavatpada Acharya (the teacher at the feet of the Lord) (approximately 8th century, but see below) was the most famous advaita philosopher, who had a... Aditya I (870-906) was an Indian ruler. ... The Cholas were a South Indian Tamil dynasty, antedating the early Sangam literature (c. ... Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India who captured Thanjavur during c. ... Aditya I (870-906) was an Indian ruler. ...

The Cheras faced total defeat in the hands of the great Chola king Rajaraja Chola. He invaded the Kerala country in 994 and destroyed the Navy of the Chera king Bhaskara Ravi Varman Thiruvadi (c. 978 – 1036 CE) in the battle of Kandalur Salai. The Chera dynasty went into a temporary decline after this defeat, although the remnants of the Cheras continued to cause trouble for their Chola overlords. Rama Varma Kulasekhara (1090-1102) was the last of the Chera Kings. He moved his capital to Quilon when the Cholas sacked Mahodyapuram during his reign. His death signalled the end of the Chera Empire, from the ruins of which arose the independent kingdom of Venad. Rajaraja Chola the first is considered the greatest of all Chola kings. ...

Venad Cheras

From about the beginning of twelfth century, the southern Kerala was under Venad rulers who asserted their independence from the main Chera rulers. They traced their descent from the Ay kings of the eighth century A number of kings such as Kodai Kerala Varma, Udaya Martanda Varma (1175-1195), Vira Rama Kerala Varma, Ravi Kerala Varma, ruled over the kingdom. The greatest of these was Ravivarman Kulasekhara (1299-1314). He was a feudatory of the Pandya Maravarman Kulasekara (1268 - 1311) and married one of his daughters. At the death of Maravarman Kulasekhara, he staked his claim to the Pandya throne and started issuing records as an independent sovereign. This period witnessed the incursion of Malik Kafur and resulted in confusion. Ravivarman Kulasekhara, utilising the unsettled nature of the country, quickly overran the southern country and brought the entire south, from Kanyakumari to kachipuram, under the Chera kingdom. His inscription is found in Punaamalli, a suburb of Madras. His capital was Kollam. A scholar and musician himself, he patronised intellectuals and poets during his tenure. The Sanskrit drama Pradyumnabhyudayam is credited to him. Trade and commerce also flourished during his rule and Kollam became a famous centre of business and enterprise. Soon after his death in 1314 Kerala became a conglomeration of warring chieftaincies among which the most important were Calicut in the North and Travancore in the South. The Venad kingdom lingered on until the middle of the 18th century before it disintegrated. The Zamorins were the hereditary rulers of Calicut who traced their lineage to the old Perumal dynasty of Kerala. Calicut emerged as a major seaport during the reign of the Zamorins. Trade with foreigners like the Chinese and Arabs was the main source of revenue for the Zamorins. Malik Kafur ( - 1318 C.E.) was a eunuch general who conquered Tamil Nadu around 1310 C.E. Malik Kafur was a slave, who was purchased by Nusrat Khan. ... Madras refers to: the Indian city of Chennai, formerly known as Madras, the former Indian state, now known as Tamil Nadu (Plural of Madra): Ancient people of Iranian affinites, who lived in northwest Panjab in the Uttarapatha division of ancient India. ... For the district with the same name, see Kollam District. ... Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, is the third largest city (pop. ... Travancore or Thiruvithaamkoor (Malayalam: തിരുവിതാങ്കൂര്‍ [], തിരുവിതാംകൂര്‍ [], തിരുവിതാങ്കോട് []) or Tamil திருவிதாங்கூர் was a princely state in India with its capital at Trivandrum (Thiruvananthapuram). ... Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, is the third largest city (pop. ... Zamorin (also Samoothiri) is a title of the kings of Kozhikode (Calicut), India. ...

Notes

Karur is a city in Tamil Nadu state of southern India. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... Kochi (Malayalam: കൊച്ചി []), formerly known as Cochin, is the largest city in the state of Kerala, India, and one of the principal seaports in the country. ... Cranganore (modern day Kodungallur) and known in ancient times as Shinkli, Muchiri (anglicised to Muziris), Muyirikkodu, Muchiripattinam was a famous and prosperous sea-port at the mouth of the Periyar (also known as Choorni Nadi) river in the southern Indian state of Kerala. ... The Syrian Kuriz also known as Nasrani Menorah or the Mar Thoma Kurish The Syrian Malabar Nasrani people are an ethnic community in Kerala, South India. ... Eastern Christianity refers collectively to the Christian traditions and churches which developed in Greece, the Balkans, the rest of Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, the Middle East, northeastern Africa and southern India over several centuries of religious antiquity. ... Thomas was one of the 12 apostles of Jesus. ...

References