The Chindits (Officially in 1942 77th Indian Infantry Brigade and in 1943 Indian 3rd Infantry Division) were a British Indian Army "Special Force"^[1] that served in Burma and India from 1942 until 1945 during the Burma Campaign in World War II. They were formed into long range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. This article is about the year. ... 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ... This article is about the year. ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1945 calendar). ... The Burma Campaign was a campaign in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II. It was fought primarily between Commonwealth, Chinese and American forces against the Empire of Japan. ... Combatants Allies: Poland, British Commonwealth, France/Free France, Soviet Union, United States, China, and others Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan, and others Casualties Military dead: 17 million Civilian dead: 33 million Total dead: 50 million Military dead: 8 million Civilian dead: 4 million Total dead: 12 million World War II...

Beginnings

Brigadier General Orde Wingate

The Chindits were the brainchild of British Brigadier Orde Charles Wingate when he was serving under Archibald Wavell, the Supreme Commander of the Far Eastern Theatre in India. The name was suggested by Captain Aung Thin (DSO) of the Burma Army. Chindit is a corrupted form of the suggested name which was of a Burmese mythical beast Chinthé or Chinthay, statues of which guarded Buddhist temples. Officially their name was 77th Indian Infantry Brigade. Wingate took charge of the training of the troops in jungles of central India during the rainy season. Image File history File links Ordecharleswingate. ... Image File history File links Ordecharleswingate. ... Orde Charles Wingate Major General Orde Charles Wingate, DSO (February 26, 1903 – March 24, 1944), was a British major general and creator of two special military units during World War II. // Beginnings Orde Wingate was born February 23, 1903 in Naini Tal, India to a military family. ... Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell (May 5, 1883 - May 24, 1950) was a British Field Marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during World War II. He led British forces to victory over the Italians, only to be defeated by the German army. ... The South-East Asian Theatre of World War II was the name given to the campaigns of the Pacific War in India, Burma, Thailand, Malaya and Singapore. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by...

In the Ethiopian campaign of 1940 Wingate had begun to explore the ideas that he used with the Chindits, when he created and commanded a group of Ethiopian 'patriots', known as the Gideon Force, which disrupted Italian supply lines and provided intelligence to British forces. As Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East in 1940, Wavell had given permission for the Gideon Force for political reasons, because he had thought Wingate's idea to be too unorthodox. After the disbandment of Gideon Force, Wavell requested Wingate for service in Burma in 1942 where it was intended that he raise irregular forces to operate behind the Japanese lines similar to how Gideon Force had operated in Ethiopia. Rather than organize irregular forces in Burma, Wingate spent his time touring the country and developing his theory of long range penetration on paper. During the final stages of the British retreat from Burma, Wingate had himself specially flown back to India while the rest of the army walked out. Once in Delhi, he presented his proposals to Wavell. 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1940 calendar). ... The Gideon Force was a British-led African guerrilla force fighting the Italian occupation forces in Abyssiania (modern-day Ethiopia) during the World War II. Leader and creator of the force was British major Charles Orde Wingate. ... 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1940 calendar). ...

The 77th Indian Infantry Brigade, otherwise known as the Chindits, was gradually formed in the area around Jhansi during the summer months of 1942. Half of the Chindits were British infantry soldiers from the 13th Battalion King's Liverpool Regiment, and men from the Bush Warfare School in Burma who were formed into 142 Commando Company. The other portion of the force was made up of the 3/2nd Gurkha Rifles and 2nd Burma Rifles. Wingate trained them as Long-Range Penetration units that were to be supplied through air. Usual armament was rifles, Thompson submachine guns, pistols, mortars, grenades and knives. A mule transport company carried their supplies. RAF sections were attached to each column for the purpose of air coordination. The Chindits were organized into columns under the command of group headquarters which were ultimately under the command of a brigade headquarters. Jhansi is a city of Uttar Pradesh state, India. ... This article is about the year. ... The Kings Regiment (Liverpool) was one of the oldest regiments in the British Army, having originally been formed in 1685 and numbered as the 8th in 1751. ... The British Commandos were first formed by the Army in June 1940 during World War II as a well-armed but unregimented raider force employing unconventional and irregular tactics to assault, disrupt and reconnoitre the enemy in mainland Europe and Scandinavia. ... Gurkha Soldiers (1896) Gurkha (or Gorkha) are people from Nepal who take their name from the eighth century Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorkhnath. ... Thompson M1A1, with 30-round detachable box-type magazine The Thompson, also known as the Tommy Gun, was a family of American submachine guns that became infamous during the Prohibition era. ... US soldier loading a M224 60-mm mortar. ... Grenade may refer to: The well-known hand grenade commonly used by soldiers. ... In its common modern meaning, a mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. ...

Operation Longcloth

A Chindit column crossing a river in Burma

In February 8, 1943 in Operation Longcloth, 3000 Chindits, Wingate with them, begun their march into Burma. The original intent had been to use the Chindits as a part of a larger offensive but it was cancelled. Wingate convinced General Wavell to send the Chindits into Burma in spite of the cancellation of the larger offensive. Image File history File links Chindit_column,_Operation_Longcloth. ... Image File history File links Chindit_column,_Operation_Longcloth. ... February 8 is the 39th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ...

The Chindits crossed the Chindwin River on February 13 and faced the first Japanese troops two days later. They were divided into seven columns. Two columns marched to the south and received their air supply drops in broad daylight to create an impression that they were the main attack. They even had a man impersonating a British general along with them. RAF mounted air attacks on Japanese targets to support the deception. These columns were to swing east at the beginning of march and attack the main north-south in areas south of the main force. One column successfully carried out demolitions along the railway but the other column was ambushed. Half of the ambushed column returned to India. The Chindwin River is a river in Myanmar and the major tributary of the Irrawaddy River. ... February 13 is the 44th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Five other columns proceeded eastward. Two, those of Michael Calvert and Bernard Fergusson, proceeded towards the main north-south railway in Burma. On March 4 Calvert's column reached the valley and demolished the railway in 70 places. Fergusson arrived two days later to do the same. The railway was put out of action only for a very short period. Michael Calvert, DSO and bar, was a British soldier involved in special operations in World War 2. ... March 4 is the 63rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (64th in leap years). ...

On many occasions, the Chindits could not take their wounded with them; some were left behind in villages. Wingate had in fact issued specific orders to leave behind all wounded, but these orders were not strictly followed. Since there were often no established paths in the jungle along their routes, many times they had to clear their own with machetes and kukris. A single RAF squadron of 6 planes supplied them by air. Ç’ Machete For the professional wrestler, see Machete (wrestler). ... Kukri knife and sheath The Kukri or Khukuri is a heavy, curved Nepalese knife used as both tool and weapon. ... The Royal Air Force (often abbreviated to RAF) is the air force branch of the British Armed Forces. ...

Once in Burma, Wingate repeatedly changed his plans, sometimes without informing all the column commanders. The majority of two of the columns marched back to India after being ambushed by the Japanese in separate actions. After the railway attacks, he decided to cross his force over the Irrawaddy River. However, the area on the other side of the river turned out to be inhospitable to operations. Water was difficult to obtain and the combination of rivers with a good system of roads in the area allowed the Japanese to force the Chindits into a progressively smaller "box". The Ayeyarwady River (Burmese: ; formerly known as the Irrawaddy River) flows through the centre of Myanmar (formerly Burma). ...

In late March, Wingate made the decision to withdraw the majority of the force, but sent orders to one of the columns to continue eastward. The operations had reached the range limit of air supply and prospects for new successful operations were low given Japanese pressure. The columns were generally left to make their own way back to India. On the journey back, the most difficult actions involved crossing back over the Irrawaddy River. The Japanese had observers and patrols all along the river bank and could quickly concentrate once an attempt at a crossing was detected. Gradually, all the columns broke up into small groups. Wingate's headquarters returned to India on its own ahead of most of the columns. Through the spring and even into the fall of 1943 individual groups of men from the Chindits made their way back to India. The army did what they could for the men. In one case, an airplane was landed in an open area and wounded men were evacuated by air. Part of one column made it to China. Another portion of the men escaped into the far north of Burma. Others were captured or died. 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ...

By the end of April, after the mission of three months, the majority of the surviving Chindits had crossed the Chindwin river. They had lost a total of 818 or more men. Of the other men, Wingate almost hand picked those few he would retain. Both battalions, with the hand-picked exceptions, were put back under the normal army command structure.

Interlude

Although British army officers in India criticized the effectiveness of the Chindits (Japanese railway communications had been out of commission for less than a week), their effect on the morale of the allied troops in India was refreshing, and they were given plenty of publicity.

Wingate on returning to India wrote an operation report. The report was controversial for many reasons including attacks on officers under his command. The report had a tendency to excuse any mistakes made by its author (Wingate) while viciously attacking other officers often based on limited information. Eventually, through his political allies in London, a copy of the report was given to Winston Churchill who was impressed and took Wingate with him to the Quebec Conference. There they were promised support of a whole air task force. Much of the air transport available for the second operation was provided by C-47 aircraft from the USAAF 1st Air Commando Group which was created to support the Chindits. The US Army also began its own plans for the group that would later become Merrill's Marauders. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician and author, best known as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. ... Left to right: Athlone, Roosevelot, Churchill, and King The Quebec Conference (codenamed QUADRANT) was a high level military conference held during World War II between the British and United States governments. ... The Douglas DC-3 is a fixed-wing, propeller-driven aircraft which revolutionized air transport in the 1930s and 1940s, and is generally regarded as one of the most significant transport aircraft ever made (also see Boeing 707 and Boeing 747). ... The United States Army Air Forces, or USAAF, was a part of the U.S. military during World War II. The direct precursor to the U.S. Air Force, the USAAF formally existed between 1941 and 1947. ... The United States 1st Air Commando Group operated in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II as part of the U.S. Tenth Air Force in support of the British Fourteenth Army in the Burma Campaign. ... The Army is the branch of the United States armed forces which has primary responsibility for land-based military operations. ... Merrill’s Marauders officially 5307th Composite Unit (provisional) was a US commando unit in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II who fought in the Burma Campaign. ...

The forces for the second Chindit operation were called Special Force, officially 3rd Indian Infantry Division, or Long Range Penetration Groups, but the nickname, the Chindits, had already stuck.

As the members of the first expedition were making their way back to India, a second Long Range Penetration brigade, 111 Indian Infantry Brigade, was being formed by General Wavell without Wingate's knowledge or approval under Brigadier Joe Lentaigne. Wingate's plans for the second expedition demanded a greatly increased force, of six brigades. Wingate refused to use Indian Army formations in this force, because he maintained their training in long-range penetration techniques would take longer and their maintenance by air would be difficult due to the varied dietary requirements of different Indian castes and religions.^[2] Wingate as well made no secret of his dislike of the Indian Army and its officers. Major General Walter David Alexander Lentaigne (1899-1955) British Indian Army - often known as Joe Lentaigne. ... The Indian Army in the time of the British Raj (1857–1947) // Administrative Name The Indian Army is the name for the Indian Armed forces of that country; the meaning of that name changed over time: History The Indian Army was formed after the Indian Mutiny in 1857 by the... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social stratification, such as clans, gentes, or the Indian caste system. ...

Whatever the reason, large numbers of trained British personnel were required quickly, and three brigades (14th, 16th, 23rd) were added to the Chindits by breaking up the experienced British 70th Infantry Division, much against the wishes of General Slim and other commanders, who wished to use the division in a conventional role. A sixth brigade was found by taking a brigade from the West African 81st Division. // History This formation had a brief history during the Second World War. ... Field Marshal William Joseph Slim, 1st Viscount Slim, KG, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DSO, MC (6 August 1897 – 14 December 1970), British military commander and 13th Governor-General of Australia. ...

The expanded Chindit force trained in Gwalior. In addition to men from previous regiments, new men came also from Black Watch, Queen's Royal, Leicesters, Lancashire Fusiliers and two regiments of Royal Artillery, with three Battalions of the Nigeria Regiment and more Gurkhas. Men were trained in crossing rivers, demolitions and bivouacking. Brigadiers Calvert and Fergusson took command of two of the brigades. Wingate himself was gone for much of the training period being first out of the country at the Quebec Conference and then struck ill with typhoid from drinking bad water in North Africa on his return trip. Teli-ka-Mandir Fortress of Gwalior Gwalior is a city in Madhya Pradesh, India. ... Official name The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) Colonel-in-Chief HRH The Prince of Wales Nicknames Motto Nemo Me Impune Lacessit Anniversaries Red Hackle Day (5 January) Marches Quick: All the Blue Bonnets are oer the Border Slow: The Garb of Old Gaul Pipes & Drums Quick: Hielan Laddie... The Lancashire Fusiliers was a British infantry regiment that was amalgamated with other Fusilier regiments in 1968 to form the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers. ... The Royal Regiment of Artillery, generally known as the Royal Artillery (RA), is, despite its name, a corps of the British Army It is made up of a number of regiments. ... The Nigeria Regiment, Royal West African Frontier Force, was thus formed by amalgamation of Northern Nigeria Regiment and Southern Nigeria Regiment on January 1st 1914. ... A massive crane is used to demolish this tower block in northern England Demolition is the opposite of construction: the tearing-down of buildings and other structures. ...

The planning process for the operations went through many revisions. At one point it was intended to be part of a larger offensive by the Chinese and Indian Armies into northern Burma. But eventually it was decided to send in the force on its own, as in 1943. 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ...

The methods of the Chindits in 1944 differed from those of 1943. Wingate had decided on a method of creating fortified bases behind the Japanese lines which would then send out raiding columns over short distances. This change was in part forced upon him by improved Japanese patrols along the frontier making a repeat of the successful infiltration in 1943 unlikely. ^[3] The lavish air support provided by the 1st Air Commando Group allowed also him this option. 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1944 calendar). ... 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ... 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ...

Wingate also had plans for a general uprising of the Kachin population of Northern Burma. He fought over his plans with the leadership of Force 136, which was concerned that a premature uprising of the Kachins without a permanent British military presence would lead to their slaughter by the Japanese at the end of operations. Force 136 also had their own plans for a rising to be coordinated with the arrival of the regular army into Burma. Wingate was eventually convinced to scale back his original plans. ^[4] Further complicating relations between the organisations were orders issued by Wingate to the commander of Dah Force not to coordinate operations with Force 136 for security reasons. ^[5] Kachin is a state of Burma. ... Force 136 was the general cover name for a branch of the British World War II organisation, the Special Operations Executive. ...

During the last months of 1943, final plans for the operation were made. The overall plan eventually focused on the use of the Chindits in the reconquest of northern Burma. But the uncertainty of the strategic plans, meant that the plans for the use of the Chindits repeatedly changed up to the very start of operations.^[6] No firm plans can be said to have existed until January 1944. The Japanese offensive on the Central Front resulted in further proposals and refinements of the plans for the Chindits. ^[6]

Operation Thursday

Troops of the Nigeria Regiment, 3rd West African Brigade (Thunder).

On February 5, 1944, Fergusson's 16th Brigade left Ledo for Burma. They avoided Japanese forces by traversing exceptionally difficult terrain. The rest of the Brigades were brought in by air to create fortified bases with airstrips. Image File history File links West_African_Chindits,_Operation_Thursday. ... Image File history File links West_African_Chindits,_Operation_Thursday. ... The Nigeria Regiment, Royal West African Frontier Force, was thus formed by amalgamation of Northern Nigeria Regiment and Southern Nigeria Regiment on January 1st 1914. ... February 5 is the 36th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1944 calendar). ...

Three landing zones, codenamed Piccadilly, Broadway and Chowringhee were selected. Calvert's 77th Brigade prepared to fly by glider into Piccadilly on the night of March 5. A last-minute reconnaissance revealed Piccadilly to be covered with logs, making landing impossible. In some accounts of the incident, Wingate insisted that the operation had been betrayed and that the other landing zones would be ambushed. To proceed would be "murder". Slim accepted the responsibility of ordering a willing Calvert to proceed with the operation, using Broadway instead. Broadway was a worse landing ground and there were many casualties in crash landings, but Calvert's men were just able to make the strip fit to take transport aircraft. Chindit gliders landed on Chowringhee the next day. It was later revealed that the logs on Piccadilly had been placed there to dry by Burmese teak loggers. The real problem was the failure to maintain observation of the landing zones (e.g. with high-flying Spitfire photo-recconnaissance aircraft) before the forces were deployed. March 5 is the 64th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (65th in leap years). ... Spitfire may refer to: Supermarine Spitfire, a single-seat fighter plane used in World War II Triumph Spitfire, a small two-seat British sports car from Triumph Motor Company Spitfire, a slang term for a highly-excitable or passionate person, especially a woman. ...

Over the next week, 600 sorties transferred 9000 men to the landing zones. Chowringhee was abandoned once the fly-in was completed, but Broadway was held with a garrison which included field artillery, anti-aircraft guns and even Spitfire fighters for a brief period. Fergusson's brigade set up another base named Aberdeen north of Indaw, into which 14th Brigade was flown. Calvert's brigade established yet another, named White City at Mawlu, astride the main railway and road leading to the Japanese northern front. 111 Brigade set up ambushes and roadblocks south of Indaw (although part of the brigade which landed at Chowringhee was delayed in crossing the Irrawaddy River), before moving west to Pinlebu. Spitfire may refer to: Supermarine Spitfire, a single-seat fighter plane used in World War II Triumph Spitfire, a small two-seat British sports car from Triumph Motor Company Spitfire, a slang term for a highly-excitable or passionate person, especially a woman. ...

Ferocious jungle fighting ensued around Broadway and White City. At times, British and Japanese troops were in close combat, bayonets and kukris against katanas. On March 27, after days of aircraft attack, Japanese attacked Broadway for several nights before the attack was repulsed with flown-in artillery and the aid of Kachin irregulars locally recruited. The US Marine Corps OKC-3S bayonet A bayonet (from French baïonnette) is a knife- or dagger-shaped weapon designed to fit on or over the muzzle of a rifle or similar weapon. ... Kukri knife and sheath The Kukri or Khukuri is a heavy, curved Nepalese knife used as both tool and weapon. ... Katana of the 16th or 17th Century, with its saya. ... March 27 is the 86th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (87th in leap years). ... Kachin is a state of Burma. ...

However, a setback occurred when Fergusson's brigade tried to capture Indaw on March 24. The original intention had been to seize the town and its airfields on March 15 but Fergusson had to report that this was impossible. Wingate appeared ready to change the brigade's mission but on March 20, he reinstated Indaw as the target.^[7]. The brigade was already exhausted from its long march, and there was no time to properly reconnoitre the objective. The units were dismayed to find that the Japanese controlled the only water sources. Fergusson expected that 14th Brigade would cooperate in the attack, but they moved west instead. Also, Japanese reinforcements had moved into Indaw, which was a major road and rail centre. Fergusson's battalions, attacking separately, were each repulsed. After this, most of the tired 16th Brigade were flown out. March 24 is the 83rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (84th in Leap years). ... March 15 is the 74th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (75th in Leap years). ... March 20 is the 79th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (80th in Leap years). ...

Change of command

On March 24th, Wingate flew to Imphal to confer with air force commanders. Returning, his aircraft is believed to have flown into a thunderstorm, and crashed in the jungle-covered mountains. All aboard were killed. March 24 is the 83rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (84th in Leap years). ... Imphal is the capital of Manipur, India. ...

The responsibility for selecting a replacement for Wingate fell to Slim, commander of Fourteenth Army. The fact that Slim had to make the choice represents the somewhat haphazard relationship of Special Force to the command structure within South East Asia Command. Wingate did not report formally to 11th Army Group, nor Stilwell, nor to any other single commander. While Slim claims Wingate was under his command ^[8], Wingate himself claimed that he was under the command of 11th Army Group for planning purposes. ^[9] He made direct requests to South East Asia Command ^[10] and on at least one occasion sent a request directly to Winston Churchill ^[11]. On many occasions, the accounts of joint meetings between Silm and Wingate written by the two men vary greatly. ^[12]There was no formal order of succession (several officers believed Wingate had nominated them as his successor). ^[13]

Slim selected Lentaigne after conferring with Tulloch, Wingate's Chief of Staff. The choice was made on the grounds that Lentaigne was the most balanced and experienced commander in the force; he had been an instructor at the Staff College at Quetta, had commanded a Gurkha battalion with distinction during the gruelling retreat from Burma in 1942, and had commanded a Chindit Brigade in the field (albeit for only a few weeks but none of the other Brigade commanders had more experience). As an officer of Gurkha troops, he had a similar outlook and background to Slim. The other Brigade commanders were unknown quantities, mostly without staff qualifications with some having never even commanded a battalion sized unit in combat before 1944, and Wingate's staff officers lacked the necessary combat experience^[14]. 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1944 calendar). ...

What Slim ignored was complaints inside the Chindits that Lentaigne was an outsider in Wingate's force and had been critical of Wingate's methods and techniques. In this respect, would be opposed to several of the Brigade commanders and staff of the Chindits. Wingate had disliked him because he was selected by Wavell without Wingate's approval. (Wingate also tended to hold Indian Army officers, and Gurkha Officers in particular, in total contempt.)

It is probably fair to say that nobody could have filled Wingate's shoes. Wingate had sustained his force outside normal army command through political connections that no successor would have available. The other dilemma of any successor was that they would constantly be second-guessed by those who thought they knew exactly what Wingate would have done in a particular situation. The same officers who would go to extraordinary lengths to justify even the most flawed decisions by Wingate would attack any successor whenever the opportunity presented itself.

The move north

Several major changes were made at the highest level. Much of the air support was diverted to the critical battles of Imphal and Kohima, where troops were cut off and could only be resupplied by air. 23rd Brigade, yet to fly in, was also despatched to Kohima. Those Chindits already operating in Burma were ordered to assist US General Joseph Stilwell on the northern front. The Battle of Imphal took place in Manipur district of North East India from April until June 1944. ... The Battle of Kohima was a battle of the Burma Campaign in World War II, fought around the town of Kohima in northeast India from April 4 to June 22, 1944. ... Kohima is the hilly capital of Indias north eastern border state of Nagaland which shares its borders with Burma. ... Joseph Warren Stilwell (March 19, 1883 – October 12, 1946) was a United States Army four-star general best-known for his service in China. ...

In April, Lentaigne ordered the part of 111 Brigade that was west of the Irrawaddy, now commanded by John Masters, to leave their earlier outposts, move north near Hopin and to build a new stronghold, codenamed Blackpool, and block Japanese supply routes. Calvert was ordered to abandon White City and Broadway and support Masters. John Masters (1914–1983) was an English officer in the British Indian Army and novelist. ...

Masters's force established Blackpool on May 8 and were almost immediately engaged in fierce fighting. Whereas White City had been deep in the Japanese rear, its defenders had had plenty of time to prepare their defences and its attackers had been a mixed bag of detachments from several formations, Blackpool was close to the Japanese northern front, and was attacked by two regiments from the Japanese 53rd Division, with heavy artillery support. Because the monsoon had broken and heavy rain made movement in the jungle very difficult, neither Calvert nor Brodie's British 14th Infantry Brigade could help Masters. Finally, Masters had to abandon Blackpool on May 24, because the men were too exhausted after 17 days of continual combat. 19 Allied soldiers, who were so badly injured as to be beyond hope of recovery and could not be moved, were shot by the medical orderlies ^[15]. May 8 is the 128th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (129th in leap years). ... History At the start of the Second World War this unit was made up of regular army battalions based in the Middle East garrisons. ... May 24 is the 144th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (145th in leap years). ...

Final operations

On May 17, Slim had formally handed control of the Chindits to Stilwell. Stilwell insisted that the Chindits capture several well-defended Japanese positions. The Chindits had no support from tanks or artillery and this led to heavier casualties than before. Some have considered these operations to be abuse, but others have pointed out that if the Chindits cannot carry out such operations, their usefulness in practice is open to question. And given Wingate's lack of concern over casualties in the first Chindit operation, its difficult to suggest that the losses in these battles were inconsistent with his methods. May 17 is the 137th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (138th in leap years). ...

Over the period June 6-June 27, Calvert's 77th Brigade took Mogaung and suffered 800 casualties (50%) among those of the brigade involved in the operation. Fearing that they would then be ordered to join the siege of Myitkyina, Calvert shut down his radios and retreated to Kamaing. A court-martial was likely until Stilwell and Calvert met in person, and Stilwell finally appreciated the conditions under which the Chindits had been operating. June 6 is the 157th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (158th in leap years), with 208 days remaining. ... June 27 is the 178th day of the year (179th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 187 days remaining. ... Myitkyina is a city, and the capital of Kachin State in Myanmar, located 919miles from Yangon, or 487 miles from Mandalay. ...

111 Brigade, after resting, were ordered to capture a hill known as Point 2171. They did so, but were now utterly exhausted. Most of them were suffering from malaria, dysentery and malnutrition. On July 8, at the insistence of the Supreme Commander, Mountbatten, doctors examined the brigade. Of the 2200 men present from four and a half battalions, only 119 were declared fit. The Brigade was evacuated, although Masters sarcastically kept the fit men, "111 Company" in the field until August 1. Red blood cell infected with Malaria, derived from mala aria (Medieval Italian for bad air) and formerly called ague or marsh fever in English, is an infectious disease which causes about 350-500 million infections with humans and approximately 1. ... Dysentery is an illness involving severe diarrhea that is often associated with blood in the feces. ... Malnutrition is a general term for the medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient (undernourished) diet. ... Admiral of the Fleet The Right Honourable Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, KStJ, OM, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, DSO, PC (25 June 1900 – 27 August 1979) was a British admiral and statesman and an uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. ... August 1 is the 213th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (214th in leap years), with 152 days remaining. ...

The portion of 111 Brigade east of the Irrawaddy were known as Morris Force, after its commander, Lieutenant-Colonel "Jumbo" Morris. They had spent several months harassing Japanese traffic from Bhamo to Myitkyina. They had then attempted to complete the encirclement of Myitkyina. Stilwell was angered that they were unable to do so, but Slim pointed out that Stilwell's 30,000 Chinese troops had also failed in that task. Morris Force was evacuated about the same time as 77th Brigade. Bhamo is a city in Kachin State in Myanmar, located 186 km south from the capital of Myitkyina. ...

14th Brigade and 3rd West African Brigade remained in action, assisting the newly-arrived British 36th Infantry Division in its advance down the "Railway Valley" south of Mogaung. Finally, they were relieved and withdrawn, starting on August 17. The British 36th Infantry Division was a Second World War British Army formation was created from the Indian Army 36th Infantry Division during the campaign in Burma. ... August 17 is the 229th day of the year (230th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

The last Chindit left Burma August 27 1944. August 27 is the 239th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (240th in leap years), with 126 days remaining. ...

Kohima

23rd Brigade, which had been diverted from the main Chindit campaign, nevertheless acted as a long range penetration unit behind the Japanese fighting at Kohima. From April to June 1944, they marched long distances through the Naga hills, mostly in monsoon weather which made movement very difficult. They contributed in a large measure to the starvation of the Japanese at Kohima, the decisive factor in that battle. Although not engaged in major battles, they accounted for large numbers of Japanese stragglers and foragers, suffering 158 battle casualties themselves.

The end

The Chindits had suffered heavy casualties: 1396 killed and 2434 wounded. Over half had to be hospitalised with a special diet afterwards. As bad as the numbers may seem, those suffered by the force in 1943 were proportionally much higher.

The healthy were sent on to training camps to await new operations. However, when the army command evaluated the men and equipment required to return the Chindits to operational status, it was gradually decided to transform it into an Airborne Division in India which would be more useful for the coming operations to reconquer Burma by conventional forces. Beyond direct replacements, it was known that the British element of the Chindits would be decimated in 1945 by the need to repatriate personnel who had served more than four years overseas. The Chindits were disbanded in February 1945. Around the same time, Fourteenth Army was positioned for a final assault on Burma and Force 136 was prepared to launch a coordinated national uprising within the country. The jungle training programs of the Indian Army, innovations in air supply and the defeat of the Japanese offensive in 1944 had created an army that was often able to do what was previously unthinkable. February is the second month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1945 calendar). ...

London memorial

There is a memorial to Orde Wingate and also to the Chindits on the north side of the Victoria Embankment next to the Ministry of Defence headquarters in London. The memorial was unveiled on 16th October 1990 by HRH The Prince Phillip, Duke of Edinburgh. The front of the monument is in memory of the Chindits and also mentions the four men of the Chindits awarded the Victoria Cross Major Frank Gerald Blaker, Captain Michael Allmand and Lieutenant George Albert Cairns and Rifleman Tulbahadur Pun. The battalions who took part are listed on the sides of the monument. Non-infantry units are mentioned by their parent formations only. No distinction is made between those units who took part in 1943 versus those of 1944. The rear of the monument is exclusively dedicated to Orde Wingate and also mentions his contributions to the state of Israel.^[16] Victoria Embankment, London The Victoria Embankment, previously the Thames Embankment is a road and walkway along the north bank of the River Thames in London in the cities of Westminster and London. ... The Ministry of Defence (MOD, pronounced em-oh-dee) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for implementation of government defence policy and the headquarters of the British Armed Forces. ... London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England and is the most populous city in the European Union. ... Victoria Cross medal, ribbon, and bar. ... Photo submitted by Nigel Holmes Photo by Nigel Holmes Frank Gerald Blaker (VC, MC) was a Scottish brave winner of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. ... Michael Allmand (1924 - June 23, 1944) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. ... George Albert Cairns was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. ... Tulbahadur Pun is a Nepalese recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. ...

Military legacy

Military historians disagree on the Chindits' military significance. The debate is part of the ongoing one of whether the deployment of special forces are a net asset to a campaign or whether the investment in time, material and men that such operations demand outweigh the advantages gained. For example, did the interdiction of Japanese supply lines during Operation Thursday by the Chindits contribute more to Stilwel's advance than if the resources committed to the operation had been used to provide Stilwell with another regular division to fight along side his X Force. X-Force was a Marvel Comics superhero team, featured in an eponymous monthly series from 1991 until 2002 and a miniseries running from late 2004 to 2005. ...

The views of the majority of the post-war British military establishment were made succinctly by the Slim (commander of the Fourteenth Army), when he wrote "... the Chindits, gave a splendid examples of courage and hardihood. Yet I came firmly to the conclusion that such formations, trained equipped and mentally adjusted for one kind of operation were wasteful. They did not give, militarily, a worth-while return for the resources in men, material and time that they absorbed. ... [Special forces] were usually formed by attracting the best men ... The result of these methods was undoubtedly to lower the quality of the rest of the Army." He makes several other arguments against special forces, about the danger of ordinary battalions thinking that some tasks could only be performed by special forces, and that special forces can only stay in the field for relatively short periods compared to regular battalions. He sums up that "Anything, whatever the short cuts to victory it may promise, which thus weakens the Army spirit is dangerous." To underline his point he suggests that "This cult of special forces is as sensible as to form a Royal Corps of Tree Climbers and say that no soldier, who does not wear its green hat with a bunch of oak leaves stuck in it should be expected to climb a tree". He does acknowledge the need for small units to stir up trouble in the enemy's rear area but does not make it clear if he is talking about V Force or the actions of Force 136.^[17] V Force was a reconnaissance and intelligence-gathering organisation established by the British during the Burma Campaign in World War II. // Establishment and Organisation In April 1942, when the Japanese drove the British Army from Burma and seemed likely to invade India, General Sir Archibald Wavell ordered the creation of...

Others, like Sir Robert Thompson, himself a Chindit, have asserted that the idea behind the Chindits was a sound one, but that they were just badly handled and used in operations for which they were not properly equipped or trained, for example in static defence. A third view is that despite the relatively insignificant losses that the Chindits were able to inflict, their propaganda value in 1943, at a time when the Army was on the defensive, was a moral boost to the people of India and Britain. It has been hard to reach a consensus on this issue due to the partisan nature of the discussions surrounding Wingate himself. Sir Robert Thompson is/was a British counter-insurgency expert. ... It has been suggested that Propaganda in the United States be merged into this article or section. ... 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ...

Three of the Brigade commanders on Operation Thursday subsequently wrote autobiographies, which contained their comments on the Chindits' concept and practice of operations. Bernard Fergusson, originally an enthusiastic supporter of Wingate, later came to feel that Wingate lacked both consistency and flexibility in his plans, which contributed to Fergusson's long, pointless march and his defeat at Indaw. John Masters, who was a close friend and supporter of Lentaigne, felt that the Chindits' mobility was sacrificed in holding fixed defensive positions or attacking strong Japanese positions, without the necessary support. In criticism of the whole Chindit concept, he points out that the Chindit force had the infantry strength of two and a half line divisions, but, without supporting arms, it had the fighting strength of less than one. Michael Calvert, who was closest to Wingate, remained an absolute unquestioning defender of Wingate and his methods.

Order of battle

See:

• Order of Battle of the Chindits#First Chindit Expedition 1943. Codenamed Operation Longcloth
• Order of Battle of the Chindits#Second Chindit Expedition 1944. Codenamed Operation Thursday

Order of Battle of the Chindits an Allied special force which carried out two deep penetration raids behind Japanese line during the Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II First Chindit Expedition 1943. ... Order of Battle of the Chindits an Allied special force which carried out two deep penetration raids behind Japanese line during the Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II First Chindit Expedition 1943. ...

Bibliography

• Louis Allen, Burma: The longest War 1941-45, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, 1984, ISBN 0460024744
• R. Callahan, Davis-Poynter Wingate in Burma 1942-1945, (1978)
• John Masters, The Road Past Mandalay
• Prasad, S. N. et al. Official History of Indian Armed Forces in the Second World War: Reconquest of Burma, volume 1: June 1942-June 1944. Delhi (?): Combined Inter-Services Hist, 1958
• Richard Rhodes James Chindit,

  Hardcover 256 pages (August 1980) Publisher: J Murray; ISBN 0719537460

  Paperback 224 pages (10 September, 1981) Publisher: Sphere; ISBN 0722151020

  Hardcover (November 1980) Publisher: Academic Pr Canada Ltd; ISBN 0719537460

• Sir William Slim Defeat into Victory (1956)
• Sir Robert Thompson, Make for the Hills, an autobiography, Pen & Sword Books/Leo Cooper, 1989, ISBN 0850527619
• D. Tulloch (Wingate's Chief of Staff) Wingate in Peace and War

John Masters (1914–1983) was an English officer in the British Indian Army and novelist. ...

Notes

1. ↑  although they were known as Special Force after 1943, they were in fact ordinary infantry units arbitrarily selected for the mission based on their availability. There was no selection procedure. The term Special Forces did not originate with the Chindits.
2. ↑  R. Callahan Bibliograhy page 101
3. ↑  Slim Bibliograhy Page 219
4. ↑  See British National Archives HS1/2 - Most Secret & personal from head of SOE India to 'P' Division SEAC & GHQ India March 10, 1944 - Military Operations in the Dilwyn Area B/B.100 to head of SOE India March 11, 1944. For the Chindit side see the Operational Report of Dah Force (Imperial War Museum)
5. ↑  See Page 1, Operational Report of Dah Force by Captain Herring (Imperial War Museum)
6. ↑  ^a  Planning of Operation Thursday
   • Prasad Bibliograhy page 318-320(?)
   • Slim Bibliograhy page 204. See also page 214 The Cairo Conference changed some of the original plans, but did not effect the plans to use the Chindits use to interdict the Japanese 18th Divisions supply lines.
7. ↑  Shelford Bidwell, The Chindit War, page 138. Bidwell speculates that Wingate had revived at short notice a plan codenamed Operation Tarzan, by which Indian 26th Infantry Division would fly in to the captured airfields, even though this division was already heavily engaged in the Arakan.
8. ↑  Slim Bibliograhy page 219
9. ↑  See British National Archives CAB 106/170 Document 14 - Statement made by Commander Special Force at HQ 14th Army on 25th January 1944
10. ↑  See British National Archives CAB 106/170 Dcoument 15 - Wingate sends request to the SEAC commander that Special Force be disbanded. See further British National Archives CAB 106/170 Document 6 January 5, 1944 where Wingate in a message to the SEAC commander accuses the commander of 11th Army Group of disobeying the orders of the SEAC commander with regard to Special Force. (Quote) "Commander-in-Chief, 11th Army Group is opposed to taking action on the lines of the Supreme Commander’s Personal Minute No. P.27 of 28 Dec 1943. The arguments which he advances in opposition to the course proposed by the Supreme Commander "
11. ↑  See British National Archives CAB 106/170 Document 27. Wingate directly requested Churchill provide four transport squadrons and promised him that with the aircraft he could conquer all Burma north of the 24th parallel along with destroying four Japanese Divisions.
12. ↑  See Slim's account of a meeting (Slim Bibliograhy Page 220) versus Wingate's account of the same meeting (British National Archives CAB 106/170 Document 18). Slim says Wingate was refusing his order. Wingate says the meeting was a conference to settle disputes run by the commander of 11th Army Group and that the orders issued were not from Slim. Slim's account of the issues related to the subject of potential use of 26th Indian Division is also totally at odds with that of Wingate.
13. ↑  Slim Bibliograhy Pages 269-270
14. ↑  Louis Allen Bibliograhy pages 348-351 summary from D. Tulloch in Wingate in Peace and War
15. ↑  Masters Bibliograhy Pages 277-278, Text online (MS.DOC): See section: "The Dark Side of Command"
16. ↑  Chindit Memorial, London
17. ↑  Slim Bibliography Chapter XXII, Afterthoughts, Special Forces: Pages 546-549

1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ... Special forces or special operations forces are military units which are formed and trained to conduct missions involving unconventional warfare, counter-terrorism, reconnaissance, direct action and foreign internal defence. ... Chiang, Roosevelt, and Churchill in Cairo, 11/25/1943 The Cairo Conference of November 22-26, 1943, held in Cairo, Egypt, addressed the Allied position against Japan during World War II and made decisions about postwar Asia. ...

External links

• http://www.wolftree.freeserve.co.uk/Burma/Burma4.html
• The Chindits
• Office of the US Surgeon General: Office of Medical History: Book 4, With Wingate's Chindits index