Chola Military was one of the most well organised and effective fighting machines of the medieval times. The imperial Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty who ruled the entire South India and Lanka between the tenth and the thirteenth centuries CE were dependent on their army and the navy to maintain order in their vast empire. The Cholas were a South Indian Tamil dynasty, antedating the early Sangam literature (c. ... Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India who captured Thanjavur during c. ... A map of South India, its rivers, regions and water bodies. ... Lanka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the evil king Ravana in the epic Ramayana. ...

The king was the head of the army and the navy. The Chola dynasty (Tamil: சோழர் குலம்; IPA pronunciation: ) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century CE. The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. ... The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period (100 C.E. – 200 C.E.) were only the three main kingdoms of the ancient Tamil country. ... Ilamcetcenni was a Chola king during the Sangam age in South India. ... Karikala Chola was the greatest among the Chola kings of the Sangam age in South India. ... Nedunkilli was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. ... Nalankilli was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. ... Killivalavan was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature, and of a period close to that of Nedunkilli and Nalankilli. ... Kopperuncholan was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. ... Kocengannan was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. ... Perunarkilli was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. ... Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen. ... Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India who captured Thanjavur during c. ... Aditya I (870-906) was an Indian ruler. ... Parantaka Chola I (907 c. ... Gandaraditya Chola succeeded his father Parantaka I and became the Chola king c. ... Arinjaya Chola succeeded Gandaraditya Chola c. ... Parantak Chola II (957 c. ... Uttama Chola ascended the Chola throne c. ... Rajaraja Chola I ascended the Chola throne in July 985 C.E. Raja Raja the Great, as he is known in history reigned for 29 years, and conquered the whole of southern India and the Chola empire expanded as far as Sri Lanka in the south, and Kalinga (Orissa) in... Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I, the great Chola king of South India. ... Rajadhiraja Chola I (1018-1054) was the king of the Cholas empire in southern India and the eldest son of king Rajendra Chola I. Although not supreme king untill his fathers death in 1044 he was associated in kingship since 1018 He maintained Cholas authority over most of Lanka, despite... Rajendra Chola II (1054 – 1063 C.E.) reigned as the Chola king succeeding his brother Rajadhiraja Chola. ... Virarajendra Chola (1063 – 1070 C.E.) became the Chola king succeeding his brother Rajendra Chola II. Rajamahendra, Rajendra’s son and heir apparent died before his father and Rajendra made his younger brother Virarajendra his heir. ... Athirajendra Chola ( 1070 C.E.) reigned for a very short period of few months as the Chola king succeeding his brother Virarajendra Chola. ... The Chalukya Chola dynasty ruled the Chola Empire from 1070 C.E. until the demise of the empire in the second half of the 13th century. ... Kulothunga Chola was the offspring of two rival dynasties - the Cholas of Thanjavoor and the Chalukyas of Vengi when he came to the throne in 1070 A.D. The Cholas and the Chalukyas had always existed in constant warfare, spaced by periods of uneasy peace, for decades, due to differences... Vikrama Chola succeeded his father the famous Kulothunga Chola I to the Chola throne in 1120 C.E. He inherited an empire that had been severely confined to the Tamil country and a few out-lying areas of the Telugu country. ... Kulothunga Chola II succeeded his father Vikrama Chola to the Chola throne in 1135 C.E. Vikrama Chola made his heir apparent and coregent in 1133 C.E and so the inscriptions of Kulothunga II count his reign from 1133 C.E. Kulothunga II reigned over a period of general... Rajaraja Chola II succeeded his father Kulothunga Chola II to the Chola throne in 1150 C.E. He was made his heir apparent and coregent in 1146 C.E and so the inscriptions of Rajaraja II count his reign from 1146 C.E. Rajarajas reign began to show signs... Rajadhiraja Chola II (1163 – 1063 C.E.) reigned as the Chola king succeeding Rajaraja Chola II. He was not the direct descendent of Rajaraja Chola II, but a grandson of Vikrama Chola by his dauther. ... Kulothunga Chola III ruled the Chola empire after Rajadhiraja Chola II. His long reign was marked by Kulothungas abilities to bring order in the besieged kingdom and by his successes in reversing the growing weakness. ... Rajaraja Chola III succeeded Kulothunga Chola III on the Chola throne in July 1216 CE. Rajaraja came to the throne of a kingdom much reduced in size as well as influence. ... The Chola Government during the imperial period (850 – 1200) CE was marked for its uniqueness and innovativeness. ... Detail of a Statue of Rajaraja I at the Brihadisvara Temple The period of the imperial Cholas (c. ... Chola Literature denotes the literature, mainly in the Tamil language created during the period of Chola reign in south India between the ninth and the thirteenth centuries CE. The age of the imperial Cholas was the most create epoch of the history of South India and was the Golden Age... Poompuhar is a town in the southern part of India in the state of Tamil Nadu. ... Uraiyur: Literally meaning the living place, Uraiyur was an ancient Chola city with a fortress and citywall on the southern banks of river Ponni and was made the official capital of the Chola empire around 540 B.C.E. by Tittan ( henceforth he was called Uraiyur thandha Thiththan). ILancaeN Cenni... Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram Gangaikonda Cholapuram is a village in the inland Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu, India. ... Thanjavur, formerly known as Tanjore, is a city in Tamil Nadu, in southeastern India. ... Many Telugu Chola kingdoms held sway over regions to the south of the Krishna River in the period between the seventh and the thirteenth century C.E. Some of them claimed descent from the legendary Karikala Chola (c 100 C.E.). It is not known much about these families or...

Army

A typical Indian War elephant from the movie Alexander .

Chola inscriptions mention numerous regiments by specific names. Rajaraja Chola I created a powerful standing army and a considerable navy, which achieved even greater success under his son Rajendra Chola I than under himself. The army consisted of the Infantry, Cavalry and Elephant corps. There is no evidence for the traditional Chariot corps found in ancient Hindu literature. There were other specialist infantry such as bowmen (villigal). Image File history File links War_Elephant. ... Image File history File links War_Elephant. ... Rajaraja Chola I ascended the Chola throne in July 985 C.E. Raja Raja the Great, as he is known in history reigned for 29 years, and conquered the whole of southern India and the Chola empire expanded as far as Sri Lanka in the south, and Kalinga (Orissa) in... Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I, the great Chola king of South India. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Chinese traveller and chronicler Chau Ju-kua, who travelled in the Chola contry c 1178 gives the following account of the Chola army: Events June 18 - Five Canterbury monks see what was possibly the Giordano Bruno crater being formed The Sung Document written detailing the discovery of Mu-Lan-Pi (suggested by some to be California) by Muslim sailors The Chronicle of Gervase of Canterbury written The Leaning Tower of Pisa begins to...

This [Chola] country is at war with the kingdom of the [west] of India. The government owns sixty thousand war elephants, every one seven or eight feet high. When fighting these elephants carry on their backs houses, and these houses are full of soldiers who shoot arrows at long range, and fight with spears at close quarters.^[1]

Indian war elephant, relief at Mathura, 2nd century BC War elephants were important, although not widespread, weapons in ancient military history. ...

Regiments

The prominence given to the army from the conquest of the Pandyas down to the last year of the king’s reign is significant, and shows the spirit with which he treated his soldiers. Evidently Rajaraja gave his army its due share in the glory derived from his extensive conquests. The following regiments are mentioned in the Tanjavur inscriptions: The Pandyan kingdom was an ancient state at the tip of South India, founded around the 6th century BCE. It was part of the Dravidian cultural area, which also comprised other kingdoms such as that of the Pallava, the Chera, the Chola, the Chalukya and the Vijayanagara. ...

• Perundanattu Anaiyatkal – Elephant corps.
• Pandita-Chola-Terinda-villigal
• Uttama- Chola-terinda-Andalagattalar
• Nigarili- Chola terinda-Udanilai-Kudiraichchevagar - Cavalry
• Mummadi- Chola-terinda-Anaippagar – Elephant corps
• Vira- Chola-Anukkar
• Parantaka-Kongavalar
• Mummadi- Chola-terinda-parivarattar
• Keralantaka-terinda-parivarattar
• Mulaparivara-vitteru alias Jananatha-terinda-parivarattar
• Singalantaka-terinda-parivarattar
• Sirudanattu Vadugakkalavar
• Valangai-Parambadaigalilar
• Perundanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal
• Sirudanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal
• Aragiya- Chola-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Aridurgalanghana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Chandaparakrama-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Ilaiya-Rajaraja-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Kshatriyasikhamani-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Murtavikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Nittavinoda-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Rajakanthirava-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Rajaraja-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Rajavinoda-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Ranamukha-Bhima-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Vikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
• Keralantaka-vasal-tirumeykappar
• Anukka-vasal-tirumeykappar – Personal bodyguards
• Parivarameykappargal - Personal bodyguards
• Palavagai-Parampadaigalilar

There are almost seventy names of such regiments have been found in these inscriptions. In most of the foregoing names the first portion appears to be the surnames or titles of the king himself or of his son. That these regiments should have been called after the king or his son shows the attachment, which the Chola king bore towards his army.

It may not be unreasonable to suppose that these royal names were pre-fixed to the designations of these regiments after they had distinguished themselves in some engagement or other. It is worthy of note that there are elephant troops, cavalry and foot soldiers among these regiments.

Administration

Each of these regiments had a corporate life of its own and was free to endow benefactions and build temples in its own name. To some of these regiments, the management of certain minor shrines of the temple was entrusted and they were expected to provide for the requirements of the shrine. Others among them took money from the temple on interest, which they agreed to pay in cash. We are not, however, told to what productive purpose they applied this money. At any rate all these transactions show that the king created in them an interest in the temples he built.

Garrisons

The army was stationed throughout the country in the forms of local garrisons and in cantonments called Kadagams. After the troubles in the Pandya country, Kulothunga Chola I stationed his army in a number of military colonies along the main route to the Pandya country from the Chola land. One such colony was found at Kottaru and another at Madavilagam near South Arcot district in Tamil Nadu. The Pandyan kingdom was an ancient state at the tip of South India, founded around the 6th century BCE. It was part of the Dravidian cultural area, which also comprised other kingdoms such as that of the Pallava, the Chera, the Chola, the Chalukya and the Vijayanagara. ... Kulothunga Chola was the offspring of two rival dynasties - the Cholas of Thanjavoor and the Chalukyas of Vengi when he came to the throne in 1070 A.D. The Cholas and the Chalukyas had always existed in constant warfare, spaced by periods of uneasy peace, for decades, due to differences... South Arcot is a former district of British India, located in the state of Tamil Nadu. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ...

Recruitment

We have no information on the methods of recruitment or of the number of permanent troops in the army. Children of soldiers seem to have been the recruited quite readily. There is little evidence that the soldiers formed anything like the present day highly trained professional army, however, they were not mere rabble beaten up for particular occasions either. Some of the regiments clearly had a tradition and history of their own and the member of such regiments clearly exhibited discipline and pride.

The presence of cantonments or Kadagam indicates that there were regular training and military practice.

Cruelty in wars

War was a grim business of fire and sword. Judging from the inscriptions of the Cholas themselves, life was made intolerable for the population living on either side of the Tungabhadra by the bitterness and the regularity of the Chola-Chalukya wars that eventually exhausted both the empires. The evidence from Lanka and the Chalukya countries indicate that, even the common rules of fair fighting and chivalry were often ignored and the non-combatant population was inflicted wanton injury. Women were subjected to cruel disgrace and mutilation. Temples were destroyed when they did not match the religious persuasion of the Chola monarch as was done to the Vishnu temples and Jain viharas in the Chalukya country. The Tungabhadra is a river of southern India. ... Lanka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the evil king Ravana in the epic Ramayana. ... The Chalukya Dynasty was a powerful Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th century C.E. They began to assert their independence at the decline of the Satavahana empire and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakesi... For other uses of the name Vishnu, see Vishnu (disambiguation). ... JAIN is an activity within the Java Community Process, developing APIs for the creation of telephony (voice and data) services. ...

The Chola army collected much booty from these conflicts. The treasure collected must have been enormous and these were distributed by the king to public endowments and institutions.

Navy

There is evidence to suggest that even at the time of Parantaka I, there was a considerable navy involved in the numerous invasions of Lanka. Rajendra Chola's naval victories in Srivijaya were a culmination of centuries of naval tradition. All the Tamil kingdoms had some sort of navies in their arsenal. Parantaka Chola I (907 c. ... Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I, the great Chola king of South India. ... Srivijaya (200s-1400) was an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra which influenced much of the Malay Archipelago. ...

The Cholas continued the ancient tradition and gave much attention to developing their naval strength. The conquest of Sri Lanka and Maldives and the embassies sent to China show the success of the Chola navy.

There is no direct evidence available on the types of ships employed in the navy.

Notes

Parantaka Chola I (907 c. ... Rajadhiraja Chola I (1018-1054) was the king of the Cholas empire in southern India and the eldest son of king Rajendra Chola I. Although not supreme king untill his fathers death in 1044 he was associated in kingship since 1018 He maintained Cholas authority over most of Lanka, despite...

References

• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1935). The CōĻas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
• South Indian Inscriptions - http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/
• Chau Ju-Kua: his work on the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Trans. by Rukuo Zhao; Friedrich Hirth; William Woodville Rockhill