Christian feminism, a branch of feminist theology, seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in the scope of the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually and in leadership. Christian feminists believe their contributions are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically-determined characteristics such as gender. Their major issues are the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, and claims of spiritual deficiency and inferiority of the abilities of women to interpret and exposit scripture compared to men. They also are concerned with issues such as the balance of parenting between mothers and fathers and the overall treatment of women in the church. Feminist theology is a movement, generally in the Western religious traditions (mostly Christianity and Judaism), to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a feminist perspective. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is... Feminism is a body of social theory and a political movement primarily based on, and motivated by, the experiences of women. ... This article concerns how a man differs from women. ... Image of a woman on the Pioneer plaque sent to outer space. ... Feminism is a social theory and political movement primarily informed and motivated by the experience of women. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... To discriminate is to make a distinction. ... In general religious use, ordination is the process by which one is consecrated (set apart for the undivided administration of various religious rites). ... Marriage is an interpersonal relationship with governmental, social, or religious recognition, usually intimate and sexual, and often created as a contract, or through civil process. ... For other uses, see Parent (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Mother (disambiguation). ... Father with child For other uses, see Father (disambiguation). ...

Many Christians^{[attribution needed]} who sympathize with women's issues are uncomfortable with the term feminism. One reason for this discomfort is the claim by some conservatives that Christian feminists are theological descendants of radical secular feminists such as Mary Daly, Betty Friedan, and Daphne Hampson.^{[citation needed]} However, Christian feminists appeared on the scene much earlier than secular feminists (see "History" below). Increasingly, the term Christian egalitarianism is preferred by those advocating gender equality and equity among Christians. Mary Daly (born October 16, 1928 in Schenectady, New York) is a radical feminist theologian. ... Christian Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning equal or level) is a recent adaptation of the historic moral doctrine of Egalitarianism, which holds that people should be treated as equals, in some respect. ...

History

From the beginnings of the early church through the 1700s, the church sometimes taught that women are inferior to men.^{[citation needed]} Despite the examples of women's leadership throughout the Bible as well as in church history, some passages such as 1Timothy 2:11–14 have been and continue to be interpreted to provide credence to claims of women's inferior nature and of their proneness to error and sin.^{[citation needed]} These presumed spiritual and leader-quality deficiencies perpetuate the conclusion by many in the church that women are not suited for leadership positions or expositional / teaching ministry. Exclusive of the teaching of children^{[citation needed]}

The Greek philosopher Aristotle had taught that women are intrinsically inferior. Aristotle's discriminatory view was taken over the far more egalitarian views of Plato and Socrates by notable theologians such as Tertullian, Augustine, Chrysostom, and Thomas Aquinas.^{[citation needed]} Protestant reformers John Calvin and John Knox also believed that men were spiritually and morally superior to women. Others, such as Margaret Fell and Sojourner Truth, were women. In the early 1800s some Christians began to teach that women are not innately inferior. Between 1808 and 1930, there appeared printed arguments in support of women's ministries. Thus emerged the first wave of feminists. They advocated that the theology of gender and justice should be based on a whole-Bible approach rather than "proof texting" of isolated passages. Some notable first-wave Christian feminists: Aristotle (Greek: Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... PLATO was one of the first generalized Computer assisted instruction systems, originally built by the University of Illinois (U of I) and later taken over by Control Data Corporation (CDC), who provided the machines it ran on. ... This page is about the ancient Greek philosopher. ... Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. ... “Augustinus” redirects here. ... John Chrysostom (347 - 407) was a notable Christian bishop and preacher from the 4th and 5th centuries in Syria and Constantinople. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas, O.P.(also Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino; c. ... John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology. ... For other persons named John Knox, see John Knox (disambiguation). ... Margaret Fell or Margaret Fox (1614 - April 23, 1702) was one of the founding members of the Religious Society of Friends, and was popularly known as the mother of Quakerism. She is considered one of the Valiant Sixty, early Quaker preachers and missionaries. ... Sojourner Truth (c. ...

• Fredrik Franson (1852–1908). Founded the Evangelical Alliance Mission.^[1]
• A. J. Gordon (1836–1895). The founder and first president of Gordon College.^[2] "'Dr. A. J. Gordon stood by me steadily,' Frances Willard recalled."^[3]
• Katharine Bushnell (1856–1946). Medical doctor, scholar, missionary, activist.
• Catherine Booth (1829–1890). Co-founder with her husband of the Salvation Army.
• Frances Willard (1839–1898). Preached at D. L. Moody revivals. President of Women's Christian Temperance Union.

Fredrik Franson, founder of The Evangelical Alliance Mission, T.E.A.M., of Chicago, Illinois, was born June 17, 1852, in Pershyttan, Westmanland, Sweden. ... Adoniram Judson Gordon (A.J.) was born in New Hampshire on April 13, 1836. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... Catherine Booth (January 17, 1829 – October 4, 1890) was the Mother of The Salvation Army. ... Frances Elizabeth Caroline Willard (September 28, 1839-February 17, 1898) was an American educator, temperance reformer, and womens suffragist. ...

Issues

Women in church leadership

Main article: Ordination of women

Feminism has affected many aspects of religion. In liberal branches of Protestant Christianity (and, notably, in some theologically conservative denominations, such as Assemblies of God^[4]) women are ordained as clergy, and in Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism, women are ordained as rabbis and cantors. Within these Christian and Jewish groups, women have gradually obtained more positions of power; their perspectives now have greater influence in developing new statements of belief. In general religious use, ordination is the process by which one is consecrated (set apart for the undivided administration of various religious rites). ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... For other uses, see Assemblies of God (disambiguation). ... Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. ... Reform Judaism can refer to (1) the largest denomination of American Jews and its sibling movements in other countries, (2) a branch of Judaism in the United Kingdom, and (3) the historical predecessor of the American movement that originated in 19th-century Germany. ... Conservative Judaism, (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel predominantly), is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out of intellectual currents in Germany in the mid-19th century and took institutional form in the United States in the early 1900s. ... Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement, based on the ideas of the late Mordecai Kaplan, that views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... For the town in Italy, see Rabbi, Italy. ... A hazzan or chazzan (Hebrew for cantor) is a Jewish musician trained in the vocal arts who helps lead the synagogue in songful prayer. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

The leadership of women in religious matters continues to be restricted by many denominations. The Roman Catholic church, and fundamentalist protestant traditions such as the (American) Southern Baptist convention^[5], and the American "non-denominational" movement (that includes the Church of Christ and megachurches)^[6] generally exclude women from entering the priesthood and other clerical positions, limiting women to the roles of nuns or laypeople.^[7] The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... Fundamentalist Christianity, or Christian fundamentalism, is a movement that arose mainly within British and American Protestantism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by conservative evangelical Christians, who, in a reaction to modernism, actively affirmed a fundamental set of Christian beliefs: the inerrancy of the Bible, Sola Scriptura, the... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Coptic Orthodox Pope · Roman Catholic Pope Archbishop of Canterbury · Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      Baptist... A non-denominational church (usually Christian) is a religious organization which does not necessarily align its mission and teachings to an established denomination. ... Alternate meanings: see Church of Christ (disambiguation). ... The interior of Rev. ...

Women as spiritually deficient

Understanding whether women are spiritually deficient to men partly hinges on whether women are equipped spiritually with discernment to teach. The following passages also relate to whether women are inherently spiritually discerning as men:

• Galatians 3:28. "There is neither…male nor female for all are one in Christ Jesus."
• Deborah of the Old Testament was a prophetess and "judge of Israel"^[8]
• Genesis 2:20. The word translated "help" or "helper" is the same Hebrew word, "ēzer," which the Old Testament uses 17 times to describe the kind of help that God brings to His people in times of need; e.g., "Thou art my help (ēzer} and my deliverer," and "My help (ēzer) comes from the Lord."
• Genesis 3:16. "To the woman he (God) said, 'I will greatly increase your pains in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.'"

Note: Judaism commonly uses the term Tanakh to refer to its canon, which corresponds to the Protestant Old Testament. ...

Reproduction, sexuality and religion

In the United States, conservative religious groups are often at philosophical odds with feminist and liberal religious groups over abortion and the use of birth control.^[9] These philosophical oppositions are manifest in courtroom and legislative battles, even making their way to the United States Supreme Court.^[10] Scholars like sociologist Flann Campbell have noted that conservative religious denominations tend to restrict male and female sexuality^{[11][12] [13]}by prohibiting or limiting birth control use^[14], and condemning abortion as a sin likely punished by damnation to hell by God. ^[15][16] As a result of these religious claims, mainline Protestant denominations (e.g. the Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist, United Church of Christ, Unitarian Universalist, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America traditions), as well as Jewish denominations and the group Catholics for a Free Choice have formed the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice.^[17] The RCRC often works as a feminist organization and in conjunction with other American feminist organizations^[18] The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C., (large image) The Supreme Court of the United States, located in Washington, D.C., is the highest court (see supreme court) in the United States; that is, it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States... For other uses, see Sin (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Hell (disambiguation). ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... The word Episcopal is derived from the Greek επισκοπος epískopos, which literally means overseer; the word however is used in religious terms to mean bishop. ... Presbyterianism is part of the Reformed churches family of denominations of Christian Protestantism based on the teachings of John Calvin which traces its institutional roots to the Scottish Reformation, especially as led by John Knox. ... The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... Disambiguation: This article is about the United States denomination known as United Church of Christ. ... The flaming chalice is the universally recognized symbol for Unitarian Universalism. ... The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America or ELCA is a mainline Protestant denomination headquarted in Chicago, Illinois. ... The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination... Catholics for a Free Choice (CFFC) is a pro-choice organization for Catholics who disagree with the teachings of the church on matters such as abortion, contraception, divorce and homosexuality. ... The Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice (RCRC) was founded in 1967 as the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion and then later as the Religious Coalition for Abortion Rights (RCAR). ...

Women submitting to husbands

The following passages relate to whether wives must submit to their husbands:

• Ephesians 5:22 Women are told to submit to their husbands.
• Peter&verse=3:6&src={{{3}}} 1 Peter 3:6 Sarah obeyed Abraham and called him lord

Head coverings

In 1Corinthians 11:3–17, women are commanded to cover their heads in worship to show they recognize their husband's authority coming from the fact that man was created first and that he was created in Gods' image. Most Christians today apply a cultural exemption to this verse to agree that women no longer need to cover their heads when praying or prophesying.

The Bible

A major concern to Christian Feminism is how people interpret the Bible, particularly the influence of one's set of presuppositions on understanding the Bible. The same passages that one denomination takes to say that women may not preach, a Christian feminist might interpret otherwise. An important factor that influences a Christian feminist's understanding of a passage is taking into account the specific cultural setting and circumstance of the time that the passage was written. This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Wycliffe Tyndale · Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      A denomination, in the... Preaching is an activity usually found in church services, and is often performed by ordained ministers of religion or authorised laypeople. ... The word culture, from the Latin colo, -ere, with its root meaning to cultivate, generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ...

Some problematic passages

A variety of biblical passages are used as authority to prohibit women from having leadership roles, primarily in marriage and the church.

• Acts 1:21. Criteria for apostleship include being male.
• 1Corinthians 11:3–16. Women are commanded to cover their heads in worship to show they recognize their husband's authority coming from the fact that man was created first and that man was created in Gods' image.
• 1Corinthians 14:34–35. Women are told to be silent in church.
• Ephesians 5:22 Women are told to submit to their husbands.
• 1Timothy 2:11–12. Women are told to be quiet in church because man was created first, and woman was deceived and sinned first.

Revelation 2:20 The church of Thyatira was rebuked for letting a women teach that the Lord refered to as Jezebel. Genesis 3:17 The first sin Adam commited was that he listened to his wife. Job 2:10 Job rebukes his wife for speaking as foolish women.

Supportive passages

• Exodus 15:20. Miriam is called a prophetess.
• Proverbs 31 10, 29. Women are commended when they are virtuous.
• Nehemiah 6:14. The prophetess Noadiah is mentioned. A false prophet who antagonized Nehemiah.
• Isaiah 8:3. An anonymous prophetess is mentioned.
• Joel 2:28–29. A prophetic forecast that women and men alike will prophesy.
• Acts 9:36. A woman, Tabitha, Dorcas in Greek, is called a disciple. Who was full of good works and alms deeds.
• Romans 16:1. A woman, Phoebe, is called a "diakonos,"
• Galatians 3:28. "There is neither…male nor female for all are one in Christ Jesus."

Miriam (Hebrew: , Standard  Tiberian  ; meaning either wished for child, bitter or rebellious, but it might be derived originally from an Egyptian name, myr beloved or mr love[1]) was the sister of Moses and Aaron, and the daughter of Amram and Jochebed. ... For other senses of this word, see Prophet (disambiguation). ... Eishes Chayil is the text of the biblical Book of Proverbs chapter 31 verses 10-31. ... Noadiah is a false prophetess of the Tenach (Old Testament. ... // Phoebe critchley or Phebe may refer to: Phoebe (Name), a feminine name Latinized form of the Greek name Φοιβη (Phoibe), which meant bright, pure from Greek φοιβος (phoibos). ...

Bibliography

• Patricia M. Berliner, Ph.D., Touching Your Lifethread and Revaluing the Feminine Cloverdale Books (2007) ISBN 978-1-929569-20-5 [1]
• Mimi Haddad, Ph.D., "Egalitarian Pioneers: Betty Friedan or Catherine Booth?" Priscilla Papers, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Autumn 2006)
• Pamela Sue Anderson, A feminist philosophy of religion: the rationality and myths of religious belief (Oxford; Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998)
• Pamela Sue Anderson and Beverley Clack, eds., Feminist philosophy of religion: critical readings (London: Routledge, 2004)
• John Temple Bristow, What Paul Really Said About Women: An Apostle's Liberating Views on Equality in Marriage, Leadership and Love (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988)

Pamela Sue Anderson is Official Fellow, Tutor in Philosophy and Christian Ethics, Dean, and Womens Advisor of Regents Park College in the University of Oxford. ... Pamela Sue Anderson is Official Fellow, Tutor in Philosophy and Christian Ethics, Dean, and Womens Advisor of Regents Park College in the University of Oxford. ... Look up Paul in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

References

1. ^ http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/087.htm (1) July 10, 1888—Evangelistkurs. Franson's announcement of Evangelist Course in Oslo beginning July 10, 9 a.m. He recounts blessings received through those who have worked as Evangelists, especially in the inland districts, since last winter—and especially so through the women evangelists. (2) Spring 1892—Franson's announcement concerning the founding and work of "The Scandinavian-American Women's Alliance Mission to Dark Places." (3) April 1896—Profeterande Dottrar by Franson and [English] Prophesying Daughters by Franson—concerning women's' position in regard to evangelization.
2. ^ http://www.gcts.edu/studentlife/ethos.php#women A.J. Gordon was a well-known advocate, in his day, of the preaching ministry of women.
3. ^ http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jga/3.3/blum.html Blum, Edward (Baylor University).Paul Has Been Forgotten: Women, Gender, and Revivalism during the Gilded Age.
4. ^ The Role of Women in Ministry (PDF) 7. The General Council of the Assemblies of God (1990-08-14).
5. ^ http://www.sbc.net/aboutus/pswomen.asp
6. ^ http://www.jstor.org/view/0034673x/ap060107/06a00020/1?frame=noframe&userID=83d82910@unlv.edu/01cc99331400501c40fcb&dpi=3&config=jstor
7. ^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/l5p31j7w2q316882/
8. ^ Deborah the Prophetess
9. ^ http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/politics-policy-issues/abortion-access/antichoice-organizations-6127.htm
10. ^ http://pewforum.org/news/display.php?NewsID=10051
11. ^ http://www.jstor.org/view/00324728/di980713/98p0182w/0?frame=noframe&userID=83d82910@unlv.edu/01cc99331400501c40fcb&dpi=3&config=jstor
12. ^ http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yUWz24sVu54C&oi=fnd&pg=PP13&dq=women+southern+baptist+convention&ots=2zoqp_H0w-&sig=4Jj4aGKdQ_Y98aJrpSg5vM5O8W8#PPA10,M1
13. ^ http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=%22Flann+Campbell%22&btnG=Search&as_subj=soc
14. ^ http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html
15. ^ http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/baptist/sbcabres.html
16. ^ http://www.bible-knowledge.com/Sin-of-Abortion.html
17. ^ http://www.rcrc.org/about/members.cfm
18. ^ http://www.nwlc.org/details.cfm?id=1223&section=Reproductive%20Rights%3A%20General%20Materials

PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... is the 226th day of the year (227th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

See also

• Christian egalitarianism
• Christian views about women
• Christian views of marriage
• Complementarian

Christian Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning equal or level) is a recent adaptation of the historic moral doctrine of Egalitarianism, which holds that people should be treated as equals, in some respect. ... It has been suggested that Christian feminism be merged into this article or section. ... Ancient Christian Marriage symbol: two gold rings and Greek letters chi (X) and rho (P) for Jesus Christ // The Christian views of marriage historically have regarded marriage as ordained by God for the lifelong union of a man and a woman. ... Complementarianism is a view of the relationship between the genders that differs from Gender egalitarianism in that it believes that each gender is distinct and has, at least in some setting, different yet complementary roles. ...

External Links

• Christian Feminist articles and books