Jesus making wine in The Marriage at Cana, a 14th century fresco from the Visoki Dečani monastery.

Throughout the first 1800 years of church history, Christians shared the Bible's tension over alcoholic beverages: although they considered alcohol a gift from God that makes life more joyous, they also considered drunkenness a sin. During the same period, Christians nearly always used wine (that is, fermented grape juice) in their central rite – the Eucharist or Lord's Supper.^[1][2] Around the time of the Second Great Awakening, some Protestant Christians moved from this historical position of allowing moderate use of alcohol (sometimes called moderationism) either to deciding imbibing was unwise in the present circumstances (abstentionism) or to prohibiting all ordinary consumption of alcohol because it was believed to be a sin (prohibitionism).^[3] Today, all three of these positions exist within Christendom, but the historic position remains the most common worldwide. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 247 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (472 × 1146 pixel, file size: 160 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) A 14th century Fresco from the Visoki Dečani monastery. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 247 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (472 × 1146 pixel, file size: 160 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) A 14th century Fresco from the Visoki Dečani monastery. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... A glass of red wine This article is about the alcoholic beverage. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... Fresco by Dionisius representing Saint Nicholas. ... Christ Carrying the Cross. ... The history of Christianity concerns the history of the Christian religion and the Church, from Jesus and his Twelve Apostles to contemporary times. ... Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant (see Hebrews 8:6). ... This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress. ... Bottles of cachaça, a Brazilian alcoholic beverage. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... “Happy” redirects here. ... Drunkenness, in its most common usage, is the state of being intoxicated by consumption of ethyl alcohol to a degree that mental and physical facilities are noticeably impaired. ... Sin is a term used mainly in a religious context to describe an act that violates a moral rule or the state of having committed such a violation. ... A glass of red wine This article is about the alcoholic beverage. ... Beer fermenting at a brewery. ... Grape juice is the liquid formed by crushing grapes. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ... The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s) was the second great religious revival in United States history and consisted of renewed personal salvation experienced in revival meetings. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This T-and-O map, which abstracts the known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography. ...

Alcohol in the Christian Scriptures

Part of the series on Communion

also known as "The Eucharist" or "The Lord's Supper" For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ...

Theology Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1211x1096, 178 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Transubstantiation Consecration Words of Institution Real Presence Impanation Memorialism Consubstantiation Sacramental Union Transignification Transubstantiation (in Latin, transsubstantiatio) is the change of the substance of bread and wine into that of the body and blood of Christ that, according to the belief of the Roman Catholic Church, occurs in the Eucharist and that is called in Greek (see Metousiosis). ... To consecrate an inanimate object is to dedicate it in a ritual to a special purpose, usually religious. ... The words of institution are the words of Jesus Christ as recorded in the New Testament used in some forms of Christian liturgy to consecrate the Eucharist. ... The Real Presence is the term various Christian traditions use to express their belief that, in the Eucharist, Jesus the Christ is really (and not merely symbolically, figuratively or by his power) present in what was previously just bread and wine. ... Impanation is a name employed to denote the union of the body of Christ with the bread of the Eucharist. ... Memorialism is the belief held by many Christian denominations that the elements of bread and wine (or juice) in the Eucharist (more often referred to as The Lords Supper by memorialists) are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus, the feast being primarily a memorial meal. ... Consubstantiation is a theory which (like the competing theory of transubstantiation, with which it is often contrasted) attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in terms of philosophical metaphysics. ... Sacramental Union (Latin, unio sacramentalis; German, sacramentlich Einigkeit) is the Lutheran theological view of the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Christian Eucharist. ... Transignification[1] is a doctrine, largely in progressive Roman Catholic circles, which attempts a rational explanation of the Real Presence of Christ at Mass. ...

Theologies contrasted Eucharist (Catholic Church) Anglican Eucharistic theology Ecclesial communities contrasted in relation to Eucharistic theology: // Orthodox Christianity the Eucharistic mystery bears an objective, Real Presence, par excellence. ... Eucharist in the Catholic Church refers to both the celebration of the Mass, that is the Eucharistic Liturgy, and the consecrated bread and wine which acording to the faith become the body and blood of Christ. ... Anglican Eucharistic theology is divergent in practice, reflecting the essential comprehensiveness of the tradition. ...

Important theologians Paul ·Aquinas Augustine · Calvin Chrysostom · Cranmer Luther · Zwingli Paul of Tarsus (b. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas [Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino] (c. ... “Augustinus” redirects here. ... John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology. ... John Chrysostom (349 - 407, Greek Ιωάννης ο Χρυσόστομος ) was a Christian bishop from the 4th and 5th centuries in Syria and Constantinople. ... Thomas Cranmer (July 2, 1489 – March 21, 1556) was the Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of the English kings Henry VIII and Edward VI. He is credited with writing and compiling the first two Books of Common Prayer which established the basic structure of Anglican liturgy for centuries and... Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 – February 18, 1546) was a German monk,[1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer. ... Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (January 1, 1484 – October 11, 1531) was the leader of the Protestant Reformation in Switzerland, and founder of the Swiss Reformed Churches. ...

Related Articles Christianity Christianity and alcohol Catholic Historic Roots Closed and Open Table Divine Liturgy Eucharistic adoration Eucharistic discipline First Communion Infant Communion Mass · Sacrament Sanctification Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... The historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology are the basis upon which a number of ecclesial communities, or churches, express their faith in the bread of life as given by Jesus, and are to be found in the Church Fathers, Scripture, the writings of Thomas Aquinas, and other early church... Closed communion is the practice of restricting the serving of the elements of communion (also called Eucharist, The Lords Supper) to those who are members of a particular church, denomination, sect, or congregation. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... The Divine Liturgy is the common term for the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine tradition of Christian liturgy. ... Eucharistic adoration is a practice in the Roman Catholic and in Anglican Churches, in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed to and adored by the faithful. ... Eucharistic discipline is the term applied to the regulations and practices associated with an individual preparing for the reception of the Eucharist. ... The First Communion (First Holy Communion) is a Roman Catholic ceremony. ... Infant Communion (also Paedocommunion) refers to the practice of giving the Eucharist, often in the form of consecrated wine, to infants and children. ... Eucharist in the Catholic Church refers to both the celebration of the Mass, that is the Eucharistic Liturgy, and the consecrated bread and wine which acording to the faith become the body and blood of Christ. ... In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite that mediates divine grace, constituting a sacred mystery. ... Sanctification or in its verb form, sanctify, literally means to set apart for special use or purpose, that is to make holy or sacred (compare Latin sanctus holy). Therefore sanctification refers to the state or process of being set apart, i. ...

In most branches of Christendom, the Bible is authoritative on moral matters to some degree, and so nearly all Christians base their views of alcohol, in whole, or in part, on their understanding of what the Bible says about it. Hence it is the single most important source related to the several Christian views of alcohol, followed by Christian tradition. This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... CHRISTIAN TRADITIONS ---- Any biblical teaching, written or spoken information passed down from generation to generation and from culture to culture without losing its original essence. ...

Alcoholic beverages appear repeatedly in the Christian Scriptures from Noah planting a vineyard and getting drunk^[4] to Jesus miraculously making copious amounts^[5] of wine at the wedding at Cana.^[6] On the whole, the Bible is ambivalent toward intoxicating drinks, considering them both a blessing from God that brings merriment and a potentially dangerous substance that can be unwisely and sinfully abused.^{[7][8][9][10]} Bottles of cachaça, a Brazilian alcoholic beverage. ... Noahs Ark, Französischer Meister (The French Master), Magyar Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest. ... A vineyard Vineyard with bird netting Wine grapes with netting as protection against birds A vineyard (vignoble in French, vigna or vigneto in Italian, vinha in Portuguese, viña or viñedo in Spanish, Weinberg in German) is a place where grapes are grown for making wine, raisins, or table... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... A miracle, derived from the old Latin word miraculum meaning something wonderful, is a striking interposition of divine intervention by a god in the universe by which the ordinary course and operation of Nature is overruled, suspended, or modified. ... In the Christian New Testament, the Gospel of John refers a number of times to a town called Cana of Galilee. ...

Lexigraphy

The Bible uses several words in its original languages to refer to different types of alcoholic beverages. Some of these words have overlapping meaning, particularly the words in Hebrew compared to the words in Koine Greek. “Hebrew” redirects here. ... Koine redirects here. ...

Hebrew

The Old Testament was largely written in Hebrew with portions in Aramaic, and it uses several words to represent alcoholic beverages: Note: Judaism commonly uses the term Tanakh. ... Aramaic is a group of Semitic languages with a 3,000-year history. ...

Strongs Concordance is a concordance of the King James Bible (KJV) that was constructed under the direction of Dr. James Strong (1822-1894). ... The root is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. ... Must is the juice of freshly pressed grapes, prior to fermentation into wine. ... Beer fermenting at a brewery. ... Alcohol by volume (ABV) is an indication of how much alcohol (expressed as a percentage) is included in an alcoholic beverage. ... Various distilled beverages in a Spanish bar A distilled beverage is a liquid, meant for consumption, containing ethyl alcohol (ethanol) purified by distillation from a fermented substance such as fruit, vegetables, or grain. ... Lees refers to deposits of dead yeast or residual yeast and other particles that precipitate, or are carried by the action of fining, to the bottom of a vat of wine after fermentation and aging. ...

Greek

The New Testament was written in Koine Greek and uses three words that represent alcoholic beverages: John 21:1 Jesus Appears to His Disciples--Alessandro Mantovani: the Vatican, Rome. ... Koine redirects here. ...

John 21:1 Jesus Appears to His Disciples--Alessandro Mantovani: the Vatican, Rome. ... The Roman army is the set of land-based military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman republic and later Roman empire as part of the Roman military. ...

Discussion

Yayin and oinos (which also usually translates yayin and tirosh in the Septuagint)^[13] are commonly translated "wine," but the two are rarely, and perhaps figuratively or anticipatorily,^[28] used in the Bible to refer to freshly pressed juice.^[29] For this reason, prohibitionists and some abstentionists object to taking the default meaning to be fermented beverages,^[30][31] but there is a broad scholarly consensus that the words did ordinarily refer to alcoholic beverages.^{[8][10][12][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]} The Septuagint: A page from Codex vaticanus, the basis of Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brentons English translation. ...

Drunkenness

The Drunkenness of Noah by Giovanni Bellini

Easton's Bible Dictionary says, "The sin of drunkenness ... must have been not uncommon in the olden times, for it is mentioned either metaphorically or literally more than seventy times in the Bible,"^[12][42] though it apparently was a "vice of the wealthy rather than of the poor."^[43] All Christians agree that the Bible condemns ordinary drunkenness in passages such as these (all from the NIV): Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 498 pixel Image in higher resolution (1000 × 622 pixel, file size: 121 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Bellini, Giovanni ~ Drunkenness of Noah The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 498 pixel Image in higher resolution (1000 × 622 pixel, file size: 121 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Bellini, Giovanni ~ Drunkenness of Noah The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United... Giovanni Bellini painted his first female nude when he was about 85 years old. ... Eastons Bible Dictionary generally refers to the Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Third Edition, by Matthew George Easton M.A., D.D. (1823-1894), published three years after Eastons death in 1897 by Thomas Nelson. ... Drunkenness, in its most common usage, is the state of being intoxicated by consumption of ethyl alcohol to a degree that mental and physical facilities are noticeably impaired. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

• Proverbs 20:1: "Wine is a mocker and beer a brawler; whoever is led astray by them is not wise."
• Proverbs 23:20f: "Do not join those who drink too much wine or gorge themselves on meat, for drunkards and gluttons become poor, and drowsiness clothes them in rags."
• Proverbs 23:29f: "Who has woe? Who has sorrow? Who has strife? Who has complaints? Who has needless bruises? Who has bloodshot eyes? Those who linger over wine, who go to sample bowls of mixed wine."
• Isaiah 5:11f: "Woe to those who rise early in the morning to run after their drinks, who stay up late at night till they are inflamed with wine. They have harps and lyres at their banquets, tambourines and flutes and wine, but they have no regard for the deeds of the LORD, no respect for the work of his hands."
• Hosea 5:2,5: "But they do not realize that I [God] remember all their evil deeds.... On the day of the festival of our king the princes become inflamed with wine, and he joins hands with the mockers."
• Luke 21:34: "Be on guard, so that your hearts will not be weighted down with dissipation and drunkenness and the worries of life, and that day [of Christ's return] will not come on you suddenly like a trap."
• Romans 13:13: "Let us behave decently, as in the daytime, not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy."
• 1 Corinthians 5:11: "But now I am writing you that you must not associate with anyone who calls himself a brother but is ... a drunkard.... With such a man do not even eat."
• 1 Corinthians 6:9f: "Do you not know that the wicked will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: Neither ... the greedy nor drunkards ... will inherit the kingdom of God."
• Galatians 5:19-21: "The acts of the sinful nature are obvious: ... drunkenness, orgies, and the like. I warn you, as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of God."
• Ephesians 5:18: "Do not get drunk on wine, which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit."
• 1 Timothy 3:2f: "Now the overseer [traditionally bishop] must be above reproach, the husband of but one wife, temperate, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach, not given to drunkenness [etc.]."

Additionally, the consequences of the drunkenness of Noah^[4] and Lot^[44] "were intended to serve as examples of the dangers and repulsiveness of intemperance."^[45] The Book of Proverbs is one of the books of the Ketuvim of the Tanakh and of the Writings of the Old Testament. ... The Book of Isaiah (Hebrew: Sefer Yshayah ספר ישעיה) is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament, traditionally attributed to Isaiah. ... It has been suggested that Yahweh be merged into this article or section. ... The Book of Hosea is a book of the Jewish Hebrew Bible, known to Christians as the Old Testament written by Hosea. ... The Gospel of Luke is the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament, which tell the story of Jesus life, death, and resurrection. ... The Epistle to the Romans is one of the letters of the New Testament canon of the Christian Bible. ... The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... The Epistle to Galatians is a book of the New Testament. ... The Epistle to the Ephesians is one of the books of the Bible in the New Testament. ... This article or section should be merged with Second Epistle to Timothy The First Epistle to Timothy is a book of the canonic New Testament, one of the three so-called pastoral epistles (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and the Epistle to Titus). ... It has been suggested that Lut be merged into this article or section. ...

A disputed but important passage is Proverbs 31:4-7: "It is not for kings, O Lemuel — not for kings to drink wine, not for rulers to crave beer, lest they drink and forget what the law decrees, and deprive all the oppressed of their rights. Give beer to those who are perishing, wine to those who are in anguish; let them drink and forget their poverty and remember their misery no more." Some Christians assert that alcohol was prohibited to kings at all times,^[46] while others contend that only inappropriate use is in view here.^{[47][48][49][50]} Some Christians argue that the latter instructions regarding the perishing should be understood as sarcasm when compared with the preceding verses,^[51][52][30] while others contend the beer and wine are intended as a cordial to raise the spirits of the perishing,^[49][50][38] while some suggest that the Bible is here authorizing alcohol as an anesthetic.^{[46][38][53][54]} Moreover, some suggest that the wines that Jesus was offered at his crucifiction^[55] were also intended as an anesthetic.^{[49][53][56][57]} Sarcasm from Greek sarkasmos, to tear flesh is sneering, jesting, or mocking a person, situation or thing. ... Anesthesia (AE), also anaesthesia (BE), is the process of blocking the perception of pain and other sensations. ... Religious depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus typically show him supported by nails through the palms. ...

In short, according to Christianity drunkenness "is not merely a disgusting personal habit and social vice, but a sin which bars the gates of Heaven, desecrates the body, which is now in a special sense the dwelling-place of the Holy Spirit, and stains the mystical body of Christ, the Church."^[58]

Sacrifices and feasts

Wine was commonly drunk at most meals,^[59] and the Old Testament prescribed it for use in festal celebrations and sacrificial rituals in the Old Testament.^[12] In particular, fermented wine was presented daily as a drink offering,^[60] as part of the firstfruits offering,^[61] and as part of various supplementary offerings.^[62] Wine itself was kept in the temple,^[63] and the king had his own private stores.^[64] The Forum for European-Australian Science and Technology Cooperation (FEAST) is a non-government organisation aimed at highlighting and developing collaborative research activities between Europe (European countries and the European Union) and Australia. ... Korban (קרבן) (plural: Korbanot קרבנות) is a Jewish practice of sacrificing an animal or of making an offering at the Temple. ... Libation scene, Greek red figure cup, c. ...

The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci

The banquet hall was called a "house of wine,"^[65] and wine was used as the usual drink at most secular and religious feasts, including feasts of celebration^[66] and hospitality,^[67] tithe celebrations,^[68] and official Jewish holidays such as Passover.^[69] Jesus instituted the Eucharist at the Last Supper, which took place at a Passover celebration, and set apart the bread and wine^[70][71][72] that were present there as symbols of the New Covenant. St. Paul later chides the Corinthians for becoming drunk on wine served at their attempted celebrations of the Lord's Supper.^[73] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1988x1016, 367 KB) Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The Last Supper (1495-1498) File links The following pages link to this file: The Last Supper (Leonardo) ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1988x1016, 367 KB) Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The Last Supper (1495-1498) File links The following pages link to this file: The Last Supper (Leonardo) ... The Last Supper (Italian: or LUltima Cena) is a 15th century painting in Milan (tempera paint on dry plaster, instead of wet plaster, as used in fresco paintings, to allow Leonardo to use a larger pallette of colors, however it also means that the painting flaked off of the... The Mona Lisa Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519) was an Italian polymath: scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, and writer. ... A Jewish holiday or Jewish Festival is a day or series of days observed by Jews as holy or secular commemorations of important events in Jewish history. ... This article is about the Jewish holiday. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ... The Last Supper fresco in Milan (1498), by Leonardo da Vinci According to the Gospels, the Last Supper (also called Lords Supper) was the last meal Jesus shared with his apostles before his death. ... Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant (see Hebrews 8:6). ... Paul of Tarsus (b. ... Corinth, or Korinth (Greek: Κόρινθος, Kórinthos; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a Greek city-state, on the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. ...

The Bible also speaks of wine in general terms as a bringer and concomitant of joy, particularly in the context of nourishment and feasting:

• Judges 9:13 NASB (in a parable about a king): "But the vine said to them, 'Shall I leave my new wine, which cheers God and men, and go to wave over the trees?' "
• Psalm 4:7 (in a positive, a fortiori comparison): "You have filled my heart with greater joy than when their grain and new wine abound."
• Psalm 104:14f: "[The LORD] makes ... plants for man to cultivate — bringing forth food from the earth: wine that gladdens the heart of man, oil to make his face shine, and bread that sustains his heart."
• Ecclesiastes 9:7: "Go, eat your food with gladness, and drink your wine with a joyful heart, for it is now that God favors what you do."
• Ecclesiastes 10:19a: "A feast is made for laughter, and wine makes life merry."
• Zechariah 9:17: "How attractive and beautiful [the LORD's people] will be! Grain will make the young men thrive, and new wine the young women."
• Zechariah 10:7: "The Ephraimites will become like mighty men, and their hearts will be glad as with wine. Their children will see it and be joyful; their hearts will rejoice in the LORD."

Book of Judges (Hebrew: Sefer Shoftim ספר שופטים) is a book of the Bible originally written in Hebrew. ... The New American Standard Bible (NASB) is an English translation of the Bible. ... // A parable is a brief, succinct story, in prose or verse, that illustrates a moral or religious lesson. ... Psalms (from the Greek: Psalmoi (songs sung to a harp, originally from psallein play on a stringed instrument), Ψαλμοί; Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים) is a book of the Hebrew Bible, Tanakh or Old Testament. ... This page includes English translations of several Latin phrases and abbreviations such as . ... Ecclesiastes, Qohelet in Hebrew, is a book of the Hebrew Bible. ... Zechariah as depicted on Michelangelos ceiling of the Sistine Chapel Zechariah or Zecharya (זְכַרְיָה Renowned/Remembered of/is the LORD, Standard Hebrew , Tiberian Hebrew ) was a person in the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh. ... Tribe of Ephraim (Hebrew: אֶפְרַיִם / אֶפְרָיִם , Standard Efráyim Tiberian / ; double fruitfulness) took precedence over that of Manasseh by virtue of Jacobs blessing (Gen. ...

Vows and duties

Certain persons in the Old Testament were forbidden to partake of wine because of their vows and duties. Kings were forbidden to abuse alcohol lest their judgments be unjust.^[74] It was forbidden to priests on duty,^[75] though the priests were given "the finest new wine" from the firstfruits offerings for drinking outside the tabernacle and temple.^[76] Note: Judaism commonly uses the term Tanakh. ... . ...

The Naziritic vow excluded as part of its ascetic regimen not only wine, but also vinegar, grapes, and raisins,^[77] though when Nazirites completed the term of their vow, they were required to present wine as part of their sacrificial offerings and could drink of it.^[78] While John the Baptist adopted such a regimen,^[79] Jesus evidently did not.^[80][81] A Nazirite or Nazarite, (in Hebrew: נזיר,Nazir), refers to a Jew who took an ascetic vow described in Numbers 6:1-21. ... For the hip-hop producer with the same name, see John The Baptist (producer). ...

The Rechabites, a sub-tribe of the Kenites, vowed never to drink wine, live in houses, or plant fields or vineyards,^[82] not because of any "threat to wise living" from these practices, but because of their commitment to a nomadic lifestyle by not being bound to any particular piece of land.^[8] The Rechabites' strict obedience to the command of their father (rather than their nomadism and abstentionism) is commended and is contrasted with the failure of Judah and Jerusalem to listen to their God.^[83] Rechabites - the descendants of Rechab through Jonadab or Jehonadab. ... http://www. ... The Kenites or Kainites (in Hebrew, Kainim) were a tribe of the ancient Levant, possibly a branch of the Midianite nation. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Kingdom of Judah (Hebrew מַלְכוּת יְהוּדָה, Standard Hebrew Malḫut YÉ™huda, Tiberian Hebrew Malḵûṯ YÉ™hûḏāh) in the times of the Hebrew Bible, was the nation formed from the territories of the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin after the Kingdom of Israel was divided, and was named after Judah... Hebrew יְרוּשָׁלַיִם (Yerushalayim) (Standard) Yerushalayim or Yerushalaim Arabic commonly القـُدْس (Al-Quds); officially in Israel أورشليم القدس (Urshalim-Al-Quds) Name Meaning Hebrew: (see below), Arabic: The Holiness Government City District Jerusalem Population 724,000 (2006) Jurisdiction 123,000 dunams (123 km²) Jerusalem (Hebrew:  , Yerushaláyim or Yerushalaim; Arabic:  , al-Quds, the Holiness)[2...

During the Babylonian captivity, Daniel and his fellow Jews abstained from the meat and wine given to them by the king because they saw it as defiling in some way,^[84] though precisely how these would have defiled the Jews is not apparent in the text.^[85] A later passage implies that Daniel did drink wine at times, though it may not have been the king's.^[86] Babylonian captivity also refers to the permanence of the Avignon Papacy. ... Daniel (Hebrew: דָּנִיֵּאל; transliterated as Daniyyel in Standard Hebrew and Dāniyyêl in Tiberian Hebrew, Arabic: Danyal, دانيال) is the name of at least three people from the Hebrew Bible: A Jewish exile in Babylon, the subject of the Book of Daniel and the most well-known of the three Daniels. ... Mortal Kombat character, see Meat (Mortal Kombat). ...

Christians are instructed regarding abstinence and their duty toward immature Christians: "All food is clean, but it is wrong for a man to eat anything that causes someone else to stumble. It is better not to eat meat or drink wine or to do anything else that will cause your brother to fall."^[87][88]

Symbolism and metaphor

The commonness and centrality of wine in daily life in biblical times is apparent from its many postitive and negative metaphorical uses throughout the Bible.^[89][90] Positively, free wine is used as a symbol of divine grace,^[91] and wine is repeatedly compared to intimate love in the Song of Solomon.^[92] Negatively, wine is personified^[93] as a mocker ("[t]he most hardened apostate" in the Book of Proverbs whose chief sin is pride)^[94] and beer a brawler (one who is "mocking, noisy, and restless").^[8] Look up metaphor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In Christianity, divine grace refers to the sovereign favor of God for humankind, as manifest in the blessings bestowed upon all —irrespective of actions (deeds), earned worth, or proven goodness. ... The Song of Solomon or Song of Songs (Hebrew title שיר השירים, Shir ha-Shirim) is a book of the Hebrew Bible—Tanakh or Old Testament—one of the five megillot. ... Phillipp Veitts Germania (1877) a personification of Germany. ...

Additionally, the people and kingdom of God are compared to a divinely owned vine or vineyard in several places,^[95] and the image of new wine fermenting in new wineskins, a process that would burst old wineskins,^[96] represents that the new faith Jesus was bringing "cannot be contained within the framework of the old."^[97] The complacent – those who are "lax in doing the Lord's work"^[98] – are compared with "wine left on its dregs" too long such that it lacks a good taste and is of no value,^[99] and those who are corrupt are compared with "choice wine [that] is diluted with water."^[100] The Kingdom of God or Reign of God (Greek basileia tou theou,[1]) is a foundational concept in Christianity, as it is the central theme of Jesus of Nazareths message in the synoptic Gospels. ... Impact of a drop of water Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life. ...

Wine was also used as a symbol of blessing and judgment throughout the Bible. Melchizedek blessed and refreshed Abram's army with bread and wine;^[101] Isaac blessed Jacob by saying, "May God give you of heaven's dew and of earth's richness — an abundance of grain and new wine";^[102] and when Jacob blessed his sons, he used a great abundance of wine as a symbol of Judah's prosperity.^[103] The nation of Israel was promised abundant wine and other central crops such as grain and oil^[104] if they kepy God's covenant commandments,^[105] and their wine would be taken away as a curse if the Israelites failed to keep the covenant.^[106] Meeting of Abraham and Melchizedek — by Dieric Bouts the Elder, 1464–67 Melchizedek or Malki-tzédek (מַלְכִּי־צֶדֶק / מַלְכִּי־צָדֶק, Standard Hebrew Malki-ẓédeq / Malki-ẓádeq, Tiberian Hebrew Malkî-ṣéḏeq / Malkî-ṣāḏeq), sometimes written Malchizedek, Melchisedec, Melchisedech, Melchisedek or Melkisedek, is a figure mentioned by various sects of both Christian and Judaic traditions. ... The angel prevents the sacrifice of Isaac (Rembrandt, 1634) Abraham (Hebrew: , Standard Avraham Ashkenazi Avrohom or Avruhom Tiberian  ; Arabic: ,  ; Geez: , ) is a figure in the Bible and Quran who is by believers regarded as the founding patriarch of the Israelites and of the Nabataean people in Jewish, Christian and... An angel prevents Abraham from sacrificing Isaac Tedla in this illumation from a 14th century Icelandic manuscript. ... Jacob Wrestling with the Angel – Gustave Doré, 1855 Jacob or Yaakov, (Hebrew: יַעֲקֹב, Standard  Tiberian ; Arabic: يعقوب, ; holds the heel), also known as Israel (Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל, Standard  Tiberian ; Arabic: اسرائيل, ; Struggled with God), is the third Biblical patriarch. ... In Genesis (the first book of the Bible) Judah (יְהוּדָה Praise, Standard Hebrew YÉ™huda, Tiberian Hebrew YÉ™hûḏāh) is the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, born in Padan-aram (Genesis xxix. ... Covenant, meaning a solemn contract, oath, or bond, is the customary word used to translate the Hebrew word berith (ברית, Tiberian Hebrew bÉ™rîṯ, Standard Hebrew bÉ™rit) as it is used in the Hebrew Bible. ...

Drinking a cup of strong wine to the dregs and getting drunk are sometimes presented as a symbol of God's judgment and wrath,^[107] and Jesus alludes this cup of wrath, which he says he himself will drink, several times.^[108] Similarly, the winepress is pictured as a tool of judgment where the resulting wine symbolizes the blood of the wicked who were crushed^[109] (hence the famous line "He [the Lord] is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored" in "The Battle Hymn of the Republic").^[110] Connected also to the cup of judgment is the wine of immorality, which the evil drink and which both brings and is part of the wrath of God.^[111] The Battle Hymn of the Republic is a patriotic anthem, written by Julia Ward Howe, that was made popular during the American Civil War. ...

The Day of the Lord, which is often understood by Christians to usher in the Messianic Age, is depicted as a time when "[n]ew wine will drip from the mountains and flow from all the hills,"^[112] when God's people will "plant vineyards and drink their wine,"^[113] and when God himself "will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine — the best of meats and the finest of wines."^[114] Last Judgement. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Millennialism. ...

In the New Testament, the Passover wine is used at the Last Supper to signify the "New Covenant in [Jesus'] blood,"^[115] but Christians differ over precisely how symbolic the wine is in the continuing ritual of the Eucharist (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted).^[116] Ecclesial communities contrasted in relation to Eucharistic theology: // Orthodox Christianity the Eucharistic mystery bears an objective, Real Presence, par excellence. ...

In the apocryphal/deuterocanonical books

Several books, which Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy refer to as a "deuterocanonical" and the Church of England as "semicanonical," are not accepted as an official part of the Jewish or Protestant canons (see Biblical apocrypha), but irrespective of their official standing, they are at the very least historical artifacts that have had significant influence among Jews and Christians alike^[117] and clarify views during the intertestamental period. Several of these books also mention alcoholic beverages, and in particular, the Sirach discusses the use of wine in several places,^[118] emphasizing joy and moderation: "Wine is very life to man if taken in moderation. Does he really live who lacks the wine which was created for his joy? Joy of heart, good cheer and merriment are wine drunk freely at the proper time. Headache, bitterness and disgrace is wine drunk amid anger and strife" (31:27-29 NAB). As a Christian ecclesiastical term, Catholic - from the Greek adjective , meaning general or universal[1] - is described in the Oxford English Dictionary as follows: ~Church, (originally) whole body of Christians; ~, belonging to or in accord with (a) this, (b) the church before separation into Greek or Eastern and Latin or... ... Deuterocanonical books is a term used since the sixteenth century in the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Christianity to describe certain books and passages of the Christian Bible, in contrast to the protocanonical books which are contained in the Hebrew Bible. ... A biblical canon is a list published by a religious authority of those books of the Bible that are considered inspired by God. ... The biblical apocrypha includes texts written in the Jewish and Christian religious traditions that either were accepted into the biblical canon by some, but not all, Christian faiths, or are frequently printed in Bibles despite their non-canonical status. ... The Historical Bridge Spanning the Interval of the Old Testament and the New Testament is a figurative way of referring to the 350 silent years between the Old and New Testaments, which was from 400 B.C. to 5 B.C. This article shows how this interval corresponds with Biblical... The Wisdom of Ben Sira, (or The Wisdom of Yeshua Ben Sira or merely Sirach), called Ecclesiasticus (not to be confused with Ecclesiastes) by Christians, is a book written circa 180–175 BCE. The author, Yeshua ben Sira, was a Jew who had been living in Jerusalem, who may in... In 1970, the New American Bible (NAB) was first published. ...

Winemaking in biblical times

Wine grapes

Both the climate and land of Palestine, where most of the Bible takes place, were well-suited to growing grapes,^[119] and the wine that the vineyards produced was a valued commodity in ancient times, both for local consumption and for its value in trade.^[120][121] Vineyards were protected from robbers and animals by walls, hedges, and manned watchtowers.^[122] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1060x1600, 209 KB) Wine grapes File links The following pages link to this file: Wikipedia:Featured pictures visible Weinberg Viticulture User talk:Fir0002 Aglianico User:Fir0002/FPCandidates User:Fir0002/Fir0002 gallery/Featured Pictures Wikipedia:Featured pictures thumbs 03 Wikipedia:Featured picture... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1060x1600, 209 KB) Wine grapes File links The following pages link to this file: Wikipedia:Featured pictures visible Weinberg Viticulture User talk:Fir0002 Aglianico User:Fir0002/FPCandidates User:Fir0002/Fir0002 gallery/Featured Pictures Wikipedia:Featured pictures thumbs 03 Wikipedia:Featured picture... The Holy Land or Palestine Showing not only the Old Kingdoms of Judea and Israel but also the 12 Tribes Distinctly, and Confirming Even the Diversity of the Locations of their Ancient Positions and Doing So as the Holy Scriptures Indicate, a geographic map from the studio of Tobiae Conradi... A watchtower is a type of fortification. ...

The harvest time brought much joy and play,^[123] as "[m]en, women and children took to the vineyard, often accompanied by the sound of music and song, from late August to September to bring in the grapes."^[124][125] Some grapes were eaten immediately, while others were turned into raisins. Most of them, however, were put into the winepress where the men and boys trampled them, also often to music.^[124] Crops have been harvested by hand throughout most of human history. ... For other uses, see Music (disambiguation). ...

The fermentation process started within six to twelve hours after pressing, and the must was usually left in the collection vat for a few days to allow the initial, "tumultuous" stage of fermentation to pass. The wine makers soon transferred it either into large earthenware jars, which were then sealed, or, if the wine were to be transported elsewhere, into wineskins (that is, partially tanned goat-skins, sewn up where the legs and tail had protruded but leaving the opening at the neck).^[119] After six weeks, fermentation was complete, and the wine was filtered into larger containers and either sold for consumption or stored in a cellar or cistern, lasting for three to four years.^[124][126] Even after a year of aging, the vintage was still called "new wine," and more aged wines were preferred.^{[127][128][126]} Beer fermenting at a brewery. ... Must is the juice of freshly pressed grapes, prior to fermentation into wine. ... Tanning is the process of conversion of putrescible skin into non putrescible leather. ... For other uses of the term, see goat (disambiguation). ... A townhouse with basement windows showing A basement is one or more floors of a building that are either completely or partially below the ground floor. ... // Getting water out of a cistern A cistern (Middle English cisterne, from Latin cisterna, from cista, box, from Greek kistê, basket) is a receptacle for holding liquids, usually water. ...

Spices and scents were often added to wine in order to hide "defects" that arose due to storage that was often not sufficient to prevent all spoiling.^[129] One might expect about 10% of any given cellar of wine to have been ruined completely, but vinegar was also created intentionally for dipping bread^[130] among other uses.^[131] Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ...

The Feast of Booths was a prescribed holiday that immediately followed the harvest and pressing of the grapes.^[132] Sukkot (סוכות or סֻכּוֹת sukkōt, booths) or Succoth or Sukkos is a Biblical pilgrimage festival which occurs in autumn on the 15th day of the month of Tishri (early- to late-October). ...

Alcohol in Christian history and tradition

For over 1800 years, the regular use of wine in the celebration of the Eucharist and in daily life was the universal and undisputed practice in Christendom.^[71] During the 1800s and early 1900s as a general sense of prohibitionism arose, many Christians, particularly some Protestants in the United States, came to believe that the Bible prohibited alcohol or that the wisest choice in modern circumstances was for the Christian to willingly abstain from alcohol. For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ... The term Prohibition, also known as Dry Law, refers to a law in a certain country by which the manufacture, transportation, import, export, and sale of alcoholic beverages is restricted or illegal. ...

Before Christ

The Hebraic opinion of wine in the time before Christ was decidedly positive: wine is part of the world God created and is thus "necessarily inherently good,"^[133] though excessive use is soundly condemned. The Jews emphasized joy in the goodness of creation rather than the virtue of temperance, which the Greek philosophers advocated.^[134] Temperance is the practice of moderation. ... Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. ...

As the Jews returned from the Babylonian exile (starting in 537 BC) and the events of the Old Testament draw to a close, wine was "a common beverage for all classes and ages, including the very young; an important source of nourishment; a prominent part in the festivities of the people; a widely appreciated medicine; an essential provision for any fortress; and an important commodity," and it served as "a necessary element in the life of the Hebrews."^{[135][136][137]} Wine was also used ritualistically to close the Sabbath and to celebrate weddings, and circumcisions, and Passover.^[138] Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 580s BC - 570s BC - 560s BC - 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC Events and trends 539 BC - Babylon is conquered by Cyrus the Great, defeating Nabonidus. ... A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value, which is prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. ... This article concerns the Sabbath in Christianity. ... Circumcision, when practiced as a rite, has its foundations in the Bible, in the Abrahamic covenant, such as Genesis 17, and is therefore practiced by Jews and Muslims and some Christians, those who constitute the Abrahamic religions. ...

Although some abstentionists argue that wine in the Bible was almost always cut with water greatly decreasing its potency for inebriation,^[31] there is general agreement that, while Old Testament wine was sometimes mixed with various spices to enhance its flavor and stimulating properties, it was not usually diluted with water,^[139] and as mentioned above, wine mixed with water is used as an Old Testament metaphor for corruption.^[100] Among the Greeks, however, the cutting of wine with water was a common practice used to reduce potency and improve taste.^[56][135] By the time of the writing of 2 Maccabees (first or second century BC), the Greeks had conquered Palestine under Alexander the Great, and the Hellenistic custom had apparently found acceptance with the Jews^{[140][141][142][143]} and was carried into Jewish rituals in New Testament times.^{[144][145][146]} Look up metaphor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... 2 Maccabees is a deuterocanonical book of the Bible which focuses on the Jews revolt against Antiochus and concludes with the defeat of the Syrian general Nicanor in 161 BC by Judas Maccabeus, the hero of the work. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 2nd century BC started on January 1, 200 BC and ended on December 31, 101 BC. // Coin of Antiochus IV. Reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... The Holy Land or Palestine Showing not only the Old Kingdoms of Judea and Israel but also the 12 Tribes Distinctly, and Confirming Even the Diversity of the Locations of their Ancient Positions and Doing So as the Holy Scriptures Indicate, a geographic map from the studio of Tobiae Conradi... Alexander the Great (Greek: ,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC–June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history. ...

Under the rule of Rome, which had conquered Palestine under Pompey, the average adult male who was a citizen drank an estimated liter (about a quarter of a gallon, or a modern-day bottle and a half) of wine per day,^[147] though beer was more common in some parts of the world.^[148] Area under Roman control  Roman Republic  Roman Empire  Western Empire  Eastern Empire Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... Pompey, Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir [1] (Classical Latin abbreviation: CN·POMPEIVS·CN·F·SEX·N·MAGNVS[2], Gnaeus or Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus) (September 29, 106 BC–September 29, 48 BC), was a distinguished military and political leader of the late Roman republic. ... The toga was the characteristic garment of the Roman citizen. ...

In the early church

The Apostolic Fathers make very little reference to wine,^[149] but the earliest references from the Church Fathers make it clear that the early church used wine in their celebration of the Eucharist, often mixing it with water according to the prevailing custom.^[150][151] The Didache, an early Christian treatise which is generally accepted to be from the late 1st century, instructs Christians to give a portion of their wine in support of a true prophet or, if they have no prophet resident with them, to the poor.^[152] The Apostolic Fathers were a small collection of Christian authors who lived and wrote in the late 1st century and early 2nd century who are acknowledged as leaders in the early church, but whose writings were not included in the collection of Christian scripture, the New Testament Biblical canon, at... The Church Fathers or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church, particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. ... The term Early Christianity here refers to Christianity of the period after the Death of Jesus and the foundation of the churches of Jerusalem and Antioch in the 30s and before the First Council of Nicaea in 325. ... The Didache (, Koine Greek for Teaching[1]) is the common name of a brief early Christian treatise ( 70–160), containing instructions for Christian communities. ... The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ... In religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has directly encountered the divine and serves as an intermediary with humanity. ...

Clement of Alexandria (died circa 215) wrote in a chapter about drinking that he admires those who adopt an austere life and abstain from wine, and he suggests the young abstain from wine so as not to inflame their "wild impulses." But he says taking a little wine as medicine or for pleasure after the day's work is acceptable for those who are "moored by reason and time" such that they aren't tempted by drunkenness, and he encourages mixing water in with the wine to inhibit inebriation. He also says wine is an appropriate symbol of Jesus' blood.^[153][154] Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens), was the first member of the Church of Alexandria to be more than a name, and one of its most distinguished teachers. ... Events Caracallas Roman troops massacre the population of Alexandria, Egypt. ...

Cyprian (died 258) rejects as "contrary to evangelical and apostolical discipline" the practice of some Gnostics, who used water instead of wine in the Eucharist. While still rejecting drunkenness, on the content of the cup he says, "The Holy Spirit also ... makes mention of the Lord’s cup, and says, 'Thy inebriating cup, how excellent it is!' [quoting the Vulgate translation of Ps 23:5] Now the cup which inebriates is assuredly mingled with wine, for water cannot inebriate anybody."^[155] This page is about Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. ... Events Sun Xiu succeeds Sun Liang as ruler of the Chinese kingdom of Wu The Goths ravage Asia Minor and Trabzon Gaul, Britain and Spain break off from the Roman Empire to form the Gallic Empire Nanjing University first founded in Nanjing, China Births Emperor Hui of Jin China (approximate... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The Vulgate Bible is an early 5th century version in Latin, partly revised and partly translated by Jerome on the orders of Pope Damasus I in 382. ...

The virtue of temperance passed from Greek philosophy into Christian ethics and became one of the four cardinal virtues under St. Ambrose^[156] and St. Augustine.^[157][158] Drunkenness, on the other hand, is considered a manifestation of gluttony, one of the seven deadly sins as compiled by Gregory the Great in the 6th century.^[159] In the Christian church, there are four cardinal virtues. ... Saint Ambrose, (Latin: Sanctus Ambrosius, Ambrosius episcopus Mediolanensis; Italian: SantAmbrogio) (c. ... “Augustinus” redirects here. ... Gluttony can also refer to a character named Gluttony - a homonculus from the anime series Full Metal Alchemist Gluttony is the over-indulgence and over-consumption of food, drink, or intoxicants to the point of waste. ... For other uses, see Cardinal sin (disambiguation). ... Saint Gregory redirects here. ... This Buddhist stela from China, Northern Wei period, was built in the early 6th century. ...

In the Middle Ages

A monk-cellarer tasting wine from a barrel while filling a jug (from an illuminated manuscript of the 13th century)

The decline of the Roman Empire brought with it a significant drop in the production and consumption of wine in western and central Europe, but the Eastern and Western Church (particularly the Byzantines) preserved the practices of viticulture and winemaking.^[160] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... In the strictest definition of illuminated manuscript, only manuscripts decorated with gold or silver, like this miniature of Christ in Majesty from the Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be considered illuminated. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... Romulus Augustus was deposed as Western Roman Emperor in 476 while still young. ... A common understanding of Western Europe in modern times. ... Central Europe The Alpine Countries and the Visegrád Group (Political map, 2004) Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... wine grapes Viticulture (from the Latin word for vine) refers to the cultivation of grapes, often for use in the production of wine. ... Winemakers often use carboys like these to ferment smaller quantities of wine Winemaking, or vinification, is the process of wine production, from the selection of grapes to the bottling of finished wine. ...

The medieval monks were renowned as the finest creators of beer and wine,^[161] were allotted about five liters of beer per day, and were allowed to drink beer (but not wine) during fasts,^[162] and Will Durant says of the customs of England in the day: "a gallon of beer per day was the usual allowance per person, even for nuns."^[163] The Catholic Church continues to celebrate a number of saints related to alcohol — for instance, St. Adrian, patron saint of beer; St. Amand, patron saint of brewers, barkeepers, and wine merchants; St. Martin, the so-called patron saint of wine; St. Vincent, patron saint of vintners.^[161] The Orthodox celebrate St. Tryphon as the guardian saint of vines and vineyard workers.^[164] Because the Catholic Church requires properly fermented wine in the Eucharist^[165] – with a modern exception for alcoholic priests^[166] – wherever Catholicism spread, the missionaries also brought grapevines so they could make wine and celebrate the Mass.^[161] The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... A Roman Catholic monk A monk is a person who practices monasticism, adopting a strict religious and ascetic lifestyle, usually in community with others following the same path. ... A selection of bottled beers A selection of cask beers Beer is the worlds oldest[1] and most popular[2] alcoholic beverage, selling more than 133 billion litres (35 billion gallons) per year - producing total global revenues of $331. ... A glass of red wine This article is about the alcoholic beverage. ... The litre or liter (U.S. spelling, see spelling differences) is a unit of volume. ... Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. ... William Durant William James Durant (November 5, 1885–November 7, 1981) was an American philosopher, historian, and writer. ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: God Save the King/Queen Capital London (de facto) Largest city London Official language(s) English (de facto) Unification    - by Athelstan AD 927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi  Population    - 2006 est. ... In traditional Christian iconography, Saints are often depicted as having halos. ... According to Saint Bede, Adrian was born in Africa and was made Abbot of Nerida near Naples. ... Saint Quentin is the patron saint of locksmiths and is also invoked against coughs and sneezes. ... Saint Amand (ca. ... A brewer is someone engaged in the occupation of brewing beverages. ... For the song by Dave Matthews Band, see Bartender (song). ... Merchants function as professionals who deal with trade, dealing in commodities that they do not produce themselves, in order to produce profit. ... Saint Martin of Tours (Latin: Martinus), (316/317 – November 11, 397 in Candes) was a bishop of Tours whose shrine became a famous stopping-point for pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela. ... Scenes from the Passion of Saint Vincent of Saragossa and the History of His Relics, French 13th century vitreau Saint Vincent of Saragossa, (feast day: January 22) was born at Huesca and martyred under Diocletian, in 304, is the patron saint of Lisbon. ... The term vintner is applied to wine merchants as well as (erroneously) winemakers. ... Saints Tryphon (Trypho), Respicius, and Nympha (Ninfa) were martyrs whose feast was observed in the Catholic Church on November 10. ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ... A missionary is traditionally defined as a propagator of religion who works to convert those outside that community; someone who proselytizes. ... A Medieval Low Mass by a bishop. ...

In the Reformation

Further information: Alcohol in the early modern period

As the Protestant Reformation began, the Reformers from Luther and Calvin to Zwingli and Knox strongly supported the enjoyment of wine as a biblical blessing,^[167] and indeed Calvin's annual salary in Geneva included seven barrels of wine.^[168] The Lutheran Formula of Concord (1576)^[169] and the Reformed Christian confessions of faith^{[170][171][172][173]} also make explicit mention of and assume the use of wine, as does the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith^[174] and the Methodist Articles of Religion (1784).^[175] In the Dordrecht Confession of Faith (1632), even the radical Anabaptists, who sought to expunge every trace of Catholicism and to rely only on the Bible, also assumed wine was to be used,^[176] and despite their reputation as being killjoys, the English Puritans were temperate partakers of "God's good gifts," including wine and ale.^[177] It has been suggested that Alcohol in Colonial America be merged into this article or section. ... Another major contention was the tremendous corruption within the Churchs hierarchy, all the way up to the Bishop of Rome, who appointed individuals to various positions within the Church (bishop, cardinal, etc. ... Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 – February 18, 1546) was a German monk,[1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer. ... John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology. ... Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (January 1, 1484 – October 11, 1531) was the leader of the Protestant Reformation in Switzerland, and founder of the Swiss Reformed Churches. ... For other persons named John Knox, see John Knox (disambiguation). ... Hunters a cool hobo For other uses, see Geneva (disambiguation). ... Lutheranism is a movement within Christianity that began with the theological insights of Martin Luther in the 16th century. ... (1577). ... The Reformed churches express their consensus of faith in various creeds. ... The 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith was written by Calvinistic Baptists in England to give a formal expression of the Reformed and Protestant Christian faith with an obvious Baptist perspective. ... Articles of Religion may refer to: The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion of the Church of England A modified version of these, the Articles of Religion of the American Methodist Church Category: ... The Dordrecht Confession of Faith is a statement of religious beliefs adopted by Dutch Mennonite leaders at a meeting in Dordrecht, Netherland, on April 21, 1632. ... Anabaptists (Greek ανα (again) +βαπτιζω (baptize), thus, re-baptizers [1], German: Wiedertäufer) are Christians of the Radical Reformation. ... A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was any person seeking purity of worship and doctrine, especially the parties that rejected the Laudian reform of the Church of England. ...

In Colonial America

Further information: Alcohol in Colonial America

As the Pilgrims set out for America, they brought an astounding amount of alcohol with them for the voyage,^[178] and once settled, they served alcohol at "virtually all functions, including ordinations, funerals, and regular Sabbath meals."^[179] M. E. Lender summarizes that "[t]he colonists had assimilated alcohol use, based on Old World patterns, into their community lifestyles" and that "[l]ocal brewing began almost as soon as the colonists were safely ashore."^[180] Increase Mather (died 1723), prominent colonial clergyman and erstwhile president of Harvard, expressed the common view thusly in a sermon against drunkenness: "Drink is in itself a good creature of God, and to be received with thankfulness, but the abuse of drink is from Satan; the wine is from God, but the drunkard is from the Devil."^[181] This Old World attitude is likewise found among the early English Methodists (John and Charles Wesley, George Whitefield, and Adam Clarke) and Baptists (for instance, John Gill and John Bunyan). It has been suggested that Alcohol in Colonial America be merged into this article or section. ... Monument to pilgrims in Burgos, Spain This article is on religious pilgrims. ... The Reverend Increase Mather (June 21, 1639 — August 23, 1723) was a major figure in the early history of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and Province of Massachusetts Bay (now the Federal state of Massachusetts). ... Events February 16 - Louis XV of France attains his majority Births February 24 - John Burgoyne, British general (d. ... Colonial America may refer to: Colonial North America north of Rio Grande the Thirteen Colonies that declared independence from Britain in 1776 The period after the European colonization of the Americas Category: ... Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. ... Harvard University is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, and a member of the Ivy League. ... The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans, Asians, and Africans before the voyages of Christopher Columbus; it includes Europe, Asia, and Africa (collectively known as Africa-Eurasia), plus surrounding islands. ... The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... John Wesley (June 17, 1703 – March 2, 1791) was an 18th-century Anglican clergyman and Christian theologian who was an early leader in the Methodist movement. ... Charles Wesley (12 December 1707 - 29 March 1788) was a leader of the Methodist movement, the younger brother of John Wesley. ... George Whitefield (December 16, 1714 - September 30, 1770), was a minister in the Church of England and one of the leaders of the Methodist movement. ... Adam Clarke (1760 or 1762–1832) was a British Methodist theologian and Biblical scholar. ... Baptist is a term describing a tradition within Christianity and may also refer to individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. ... John Gill (born at Kettering, Northamptonshire on November 23, 1697 and died October 14, 1771) was an English Baptist, Biblical scholar. ... John Bunyan. ...

In the 1800s

Thomas Bramwell Welch

In the early 1800s, however, things began to change. With the social upheaval that accompanied the American Revolution and the urbanization induced by the Industrial Revolution, drunkenness was on the rise and was blamed for the increasing poverty, unemployment, and crime, and Temperance Societies began forming in order to combat the trend. Initially they espoused moderation and temperance in the use of alcohol, but, fueled in part by the Second Great Awakening, which emphasized personal holiness (and sometimes perfectionism), the message soon changed to the outright elimination of alcohol.^{[182][183][184][185]} Once the Temperance Movement made the leap from temperance to prohibition, alcohol itself became an evil, and so it had to be expunged from Christian practice, especially from the holy rite of the Lord's Supper.^[183][110] Such a position was made practical by Methodist minister Thomas Bramwell Welch's invention of a pasteurization process to stop the fermentation that grape juice naturally undergoes^[186] (see winemaking). Welch's church elders considered substituting juice for wine in the Lord's Supper to be an "unacceptable innovation,"^[187] though it eventually took hold in much of American Protestantism. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... John Trumbulls Declaration of Independence, showing the five-man committee in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress The American Revolution refers to the period during the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen Colonies that... A Watt steam engine. ... A cartoon from Australia ca. ... The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s) was the second great religious revival in United States history and consisted of renewed personal salvation experienced in revival meetings. ... Holiness is the state of being holy, that is, set apart for the worship or service of God or gods. ... Perfectionism can refer to: perfectionism (philosophy) perfectionism (psychology) perfectionist movement a utopian societal movement in the late 19th, early 20th century United States from which hails Oneida Society and which is historically related to the Modern Spiritualist movement. ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ... See also minister (government) and minister (diplomacy) In Christian churches, a minister is a man or woman who serves a congregation or participates in a role in a parachurch ministry; such persons can minister as a Pastor, Preacher, Bishop, Chaplain, Deacon or Elder. ... Thomas Bramwell Welch (December 31, 1925 - 1903) the discoverer of the pasteurization process to prevent the fermentation of grape juice. ... Pasteurization (or pasteurisation) is the process of heating food for the purpose of killing harmful organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, molds, and yeasts. ... Grape juice is the liquid formed by crushing grapes. ... Winemakers often use carboys like these to ferment smaller quantities of wine Winemaking, or vinification, is the process of wine production, from the selection of grapes to the bottling of finished wine. ... Elder (religious) redirects here. ...

Though many Protestants consider Christian tradition to be a valuable guide in matters of faith and practice (compare Paleo-Orthodoxy, for instance), Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy each have a stronger view of Sacred Tradition, and consequently they were largely unaffected by the movements to eliminate alcohol from church life. Similarly, while the Lutheran and Anglican churches felt some pressure, they did not alter in their moderationist position. Even the English denominational Temperance Societies refused to make abstention a requirement for membership, and their position remained moderationist in character.^[188] The changes in practice thus were not common to the church around the world but rather were primarily a phenomenon in American Protestantism, particularly those without a strong international history or connections. These changes have persisted with some waning of support down to our own day.^[186][189] CHRISTIAN TRADITIONS ---- Any biblical teaching, written or spoken information passed down from generation to generation and from culture to culture without losing its original essence. ... Thomas Oden Paleo-Orthodoxy is a Christian theological movement of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. ... The Catholic Church bases all of its teachings on Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture (The Bible). ... Lutheranism is a movement within Christianity that began with the theological insights of Martin Luther in the 16th century. ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... A religious denomination, (also simply denomination) is a subgroup within a religion that operates under a common name, tradition, and identity. ...

Current views

Today, the views on alcohol in Christendom can be divided into moderationism, abstentionism, and prohibitionism. Abstentionists and prohibitionists are sometimes lumped together as "teetotalers" (compare list of teetotalers) and share some similar arguments for their positions, but the distinction between them is that the latter abstain from alcohol as a matter of law (that is, they believe God requires abstinence in all ordinary circumstances), while the former abstain as a matter of prudence (that is, they believe total abstinence is the wisest and most loving way to live in the present circumstances).^[3] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... List of well-known teetotalers, practicing complete abstinence from alcoholic beverages. ...

Moderationism

The moderationist position is accepted almost universally outside of Protestant Christianity^[190][191] and within Protestantism, it is accepted by most Lutherans,^[192][193] Anglicans,^[10] and Reformed churches.^{[194][195][196][197][198]} Moderationism is also accepted by Jehovah's Witnesses.^[199] Lutheranism is a movement within Christianity that began with the theological insights of Martin Luther in the 16th century. ... The term Anglican (from Medieval Latin ecclesia anglicana, meaning the English Church) is used to describe how the people, institutions and churches as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the state established Church of England, the Anglican Communion. ... -1...

Moderationism argues that, according to the biblical and traditional witness, (1) alcohol is a good gift of God that is rightly used for making the heart merry, and (2) while its dangers are real, it may be used wisely and moderately rather than being shunned or prohibited because of potential abuse.^{[54][71][200][183]} In short, moderationism holds that temperance (that is, moderation or self-control) in all of one's behavior, not abstinence, is the biblical norm.^[201]

On the first point, moderationists reflect the Hebrew mindset that all creation is good.^[202] Going further, Calvin says that "it is lawful to use wine not only in cases of necessity, but also thereby to make us merry,"^[203] and in his Genevan Catechism, he answers that wine is appropriate in the Lord's Supper because "by wine the hearts of men are gladdened, their strength recruited, and the whole man strengthened, so by the blood of our Lord the same benefits are received by our souls."^[204]

On the second point, Martin Luther employs a reductio ad absurdum to counter the idea that abuse should be met with disuse: "[W]e must not ... reject [or] condemn anything because it is abused.... [W]ine and women bring many a man to misery and make a fool of him (Ecclus. 19:2; 31:30); so [we would need to] kill all the women and pour out all the wine."^[205] In dealing with drunkenness at the love feast in Corinth,^[73] St. Paul does not require total abstinence from drink but love for one another that would express itself in moderate, selfless behavior.^[206][207] However, moderationists approve of voluntary abstinence in a number of cases, such as for a person one who finds it too difficult to drink in moderation and for the benefit of the "weaker brother," who would err because of a stronger Christian exercising his or her liberty to drink.^[208] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Wisdom of Ben Sira, (or The Wisdom of Yeshua Ben Sira or merely Sirach), called Ecclesiasticus (not to be confused with Ecclesiastes) by Christians, is a book written circa 180–175 BCE. The author, Yeshua ben Sira, was a Jew who had been living in Jerusalem, who may in... The Agape Feast was a love feast celebrated in apostolic times on any day, in addition to the Eucharist. ... Corinth, or Korinth (Greek: Κόρινθος, Kórinthos; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a Greek city-state, on the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. ... Paul of Tarsus (b. ...

While all moderationists approve of using (fermented) wine in the Eucharist in principle (Catholics, Orthodox, and some Lutherans require it),^[165][166] because of prohibitionist heritage and a sensitivity to those who wish to abstain from alcohol, many offer either grape juice or both wine and juice at their celebrations of the Lord's Supper.^{[192][195][196][209]} Some Christians mix some water with the wine following ancient tradition, and some attach a mystical significance to this practice.^[210][211] Mysticism from the Greek μυστικός (mystikos) an initiate (of the Eleusinian Mysteries, μυστήρια (mysteria) meaning initiation[1]) is the pursuit of achieving communion or identity with, or conscious awareness of, ultimate reality, the divine, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, or insight; and the belief that such experience is an...

Comparison

In addition to lexical and historical differences,^[54][212] moderationism holds that prohibitionism errs by confusing the Christian virtues of temperance and moderation with abstinence and prohibition and by locating the evil in the object that is abused rather in the heart and deeds of the abuser.^[183][9] Moreover, moderationists suggest that the prohibitionist and abstentionist positions denigrate God's creation and his good gifts and deny that it is not what goes into a man that makes him evil but what comes out (that is, what he says and does).^[81][213] And so, moderationists hold that in banishing wine from communion and dinner tables, prohibitionists and abstentionists go against the witness of the Bible and the church throughout the ages and implicitly adopt a Pharisaical moralism that is at odds with the what moderationists consider the right approach to biblical ethics and the doctrines of sin and sanctification.^{[214][215][200]} The word Pharisees comes from the Hebrew פרושים prushim from פרוש parush, meaning a detached one, that is, one who is separated for a life of purity. ... Moralism is the philosophy of adherence to morality, created by Max Shapiro, of 20th century Los Angeles. ... Ethics (from the Ancient Greek ēthikos, the adjective of ēthos custom, habit), a major branch of philosophy, is the study of values and customs of a person or group and covers the analysis and employment of concepts such as right and wrong, good and evil, and responsibility. ... Sin is a term used mainly in a religious context to describe an act that violates a moral rule or the state of having committed such a violation. ... Sanctification or in its verb form, sanctify, literally means to set apart for special use or purpose, that is to make holy or sacred (compare Latin sanctus holy). Therefore sanctification refers to the state or process of being set apart, i. ...

Abstentionism

The abstentionist position is held by many Baptists,^[216] Pentecostals,^[217] Methodists,^[218] and other evangelical and Protestant groups including the Salvation Army.^[219] Prominent proponents of abstentionism include Billy Graham,^[220] John F. MacArthur,^[46] R. Albert Mohler, Jr.,^[221] and John Piper.^[222] Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. ... The Pentecostal movement within Protestant Christianity places special emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit. ... The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... Shield of The Salvation Army The Salvation Army is a non-military evangelical Christian organization founded in 1865 by one time Methodist minister William Booth. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... John MacArthur John F. MacArthur, Jr. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... It has been suggested that Christian Hedonism be merged into this article or section. ...

Abstentionists believe that although alcohol consumption is not inherently sinful or necessarily avoided in all circumstances, it is generally not the wisest or most prudent choice. While most abstentionists don't require abstinence from alcohol for membership in their churches, they do often require it for leadership positions.^{[38][222][223]}

Some reasons commonly given for voluntary abstention are:

1. The Bible warns that alcohol can hinder moral discretion. As discussed above, Pr 31:4-5 warns kings and rulers that they might "forget what is decreed, and pervert the rights of all the afflicted." Some abstentionists speak of alcohol as "corrupt[ing]" the body and as a substance that can "impair my judgment and further distract me from God’s will for my life."^[224]
2. Christians must be sensitive to the "weaker brother," that is, the Christian who (incorrectly, in the abstentionist's view) believes imbibing to be a sin. On this point MacArthur says, "[T]he primary reason I don't do a lot of things I could do, including drinking wine or any alcoholic beverage, [is] because I know some believers would be offended by it.... [M]any Christians will drink their beer and wine and flaunt their liberty no matter what anyone thinks. Consequently, there is a rift in the fellowship."^[225]
3. Christians should make a public statement against drunkenness because of the negative consequences it can have on individuals, families, and society as a whole. Some abstentionists believe that their witness as persons of moral character is also enhanced by this choice.^[223][224]

Additionally, abstentionists argue that while drinking may have been more acceptable in ancient times (for instance, using wine to purify polluted drinking water),^[38][226] modern circumstances have changed the nature of Christian's responsibility in this area. First, some abstentionists argue that wine in Biblical times was weaker and diluted with water such that drunkenness was less common,^{[227][228][229]} though few non-abstentionists accept this as a matter of historical fact (see above), and the invention of more efficient distillation techniques has led to even more potent and cheaper alcohol, which in turn has lessened the economic barrier to drinking to excess.^[230][228] Second, some of the consequences of drunkenness have been amplified by changing circumstances such as the availability of automobiles and the hazards of driving under the influence. Moral character or character is an evaluation of a persons moral and mental qualities. ... // Air pollution Motor vehicle emissions are likely the leading cause of air pollution. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Comparison

On historical and lexical grounds, many abstentionists reject the argument of prohibitionists that wine in the Bible was not alcoholic and that imbibing is nearly always a sin.^[38][35] Piper summarizes the abstentionist position on this point:

The consumption of food and drink is in itself no basis for judging a person's standing with God.... [The Apostle Paul's] approach to these abuses [of food and drink] was never to forbid food or drink. It was always to forbid what destroyed God's temple and injured faith. He taught the principle of love, but did not determine its application with regulations in matters of food and drink.^[231]

Abstentionists also reject the position of moderationists that in many circumstances Christians should feel free to drink for pleasure because abstentionists see alcohol as inherently too dangerous and not "a necessity for life or good living,"^[223][31] with some even going so far as to say, "Moderation is the cause of the liquor problem."^[223]

Prohibitionism

The prohibitionist position has experienced a general reduction of support since the days of Prohibitionism as a movement, with many of its advocates becoming abstentionists instead. Prohibitionism is the belief that citizens will abstain from enjoyable and/or profitable actions if these are typed as illegal, and/or prohibitions are supported by force (enforcement). ...

Prohibitionist individuals such as Stephen Reynolds^{[232][233][234]} and Jack Van Impe^[235] and denominations such as the Seventh-day Adventists^[236][237] hold that the Bible forbids partaking of alcohol altogether, with some arguing that even the alleged medicinal use of wine in 1 Timothy 5:23 is a reference to unfermented grape juice.^[30] They argue that the words for alcoholic beverages in the Bible can also refer to non-alcoholic versions such as unfermented grape juice, and for this reason the context must determine which meaning is required.^[234] In passages where the beverages are viewed negatively, prohibitionists understand them to mean the alcoholic drinks, and where they are viewed positively, they understand them to mean non-alcoholic drinks.^[238] Prohibitionists also accuse most Bible translators of exhibiting a bias in favor of alcohol that obscures the meaning of the original texts.^[30][234] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Seventh-day Adventist Churchs logo The Seventh-day Adventist Church is a Christian denomination distinguished by their doctrinal beliefs that the literal, visible second coming of Jesus Christ is imminent, and that the seventh-day Sabbath of the Ten Commandments (Saturday) is the authentic biblical day of rest and...

The Word of Wisdom, which is a section in Doctrine and Covenants, part of the Mormon canon, also forbids the use of alcohol along with tobacco, coffee, and tea.^[239] The Word of Wisdom is the common name of Section 89 of the Doctrine and Covenants — a book that consists of what many churches within the Latter Day Saint movement consider to be revelations from God. ... Doctrine and Covenants The Doctrine and Covenants (sometimes referred to as the D&C) is a part of the open scriptural canon of Mormonism. ... Mormonism is a term to describe religious, ideological, and cultural aspects of the various denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement. ... A biblical canon is a list published by a religious authority of those books of the Bible that are considered inspired by God. ... Species Nicotiana acuminata Nicotiana alata Nicotiana attenuata Nicotiana benthamiana Nicotiana clevelandii Nicotiana excelsior Nicotiana forgetiana Nicotiana glauca Nicotiana glutinosa Nicotiana langsdorffii Nicotiana longiflora Nicotiana obtusifolia Nicotiana paniculata Nicotiana plumbagifolia Nicotiana quadrivalvis Nicotiana repanda Nicotiana rustica Nicotianasuaveolens Nicotiana sylvestris Nicotiana tabacum Nicotiana tomentosa Ref: ITIS 30562 as of August 26, 2005... A cup of coffee Workers sorting and pulping coffee beans in Guatemala Coffee is a widely consumed beverage prepared from the roasted seeds—commonly referred to as beans—of the coffee plant. ... Tea leaves in a Chinese gaiwan. ...

References