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History

Religious laws pertaining to circumcision are ancient. The Hebrew Bible commands the Jews to perform the operation on their male child's eighth day of life and also to circumcise their slaves (Genesis 17:11-12). See Brit milah (the Hebrew name for ritual circumcision). Seixas Family circumcision set and trunk, ca. ... 11th century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible with Targum This article is about the term Hebrew Bible. For the Hebrew Bible itself, see Tanakh (Jewish tradition) or Old Testament (Christian tradition). ... Set of implements used in the performance of brit milah, displayed in the Göttingen city museum Brit milah (Hebrew: בְרִית מִילָה [bərīt mīlā] literally: covenant [of] circumcision), also berit milah (Sephardi), bris milah (Ashkenazi pronunciation) or bris (Yiddish) is a religious ceremony within Judaism that welcomes infant Jewish...

Laws banning circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks prized the foreskin and disapproved of the Jewish custom of circumcision.[3]

King Antiochus IV, of Syria, the occupying power of the Holy Land in 170 BC, decreed that circumcision was unlawful and punishable by death. According to the Historia Augusta, the Roman emperor Hadrian issued a decree banning circumcision in the empire,[4] triggering the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt of 132 AD. The Roman historian Cassius Dio, however, made no mention of such a law, and blamed the Jewish uprising instead on Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina, a city dedicated to Jupiter. Coin of Antiochus IV. Reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Holy Land (Biblical). ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC - 170s BC - 160s BC 150s BC140s BC 130s BC 120s BC Years: 175 BC 174 BC 173 BC 172 BC 171 BC - 170 BC - 169 BC 168 BC 167... The Augustan History (Lat. ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. ... Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus (January 24, 76 – July 10, 138), known as Hadrian in English was Roman emperor from 117 – 138, as well as a Stoic and Epicurean philosopher. ... Simon bar Kokhba was a Jewish military leader who led a revolt against the Romans in AD 132. ... Events The messianic, charismatic leader Simon bar Kokhba starts a war of liberation against the Romans, which is crushed by emperor Hadrian. ... Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... For other uses, see Jerusalem (disambiguation). ... Aelia Capitolina was a city built by the emperor Hadrian in the year 131, and occupied by a Roman colony, on the site of Syrian dominions. ... Jupiter et Thétis - by Jean Ingres, 1811. ...

Hadrian permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons, but forbade them from circumcising non-Jews. Genesis 17:12 commands that Jews must circumcise their slaves, so this law prohibited the circumcision of slaves, and also made it illegal for a man to convert to Judaism. [5] Antoninus Pius exempted the Egyptian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision. Genesis (‎, Greek: Γένεσις, meaning birth, creation, cause, beginning, source or origin) is the first book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. ...

Modern Law

England

Circumcision has traditionally been presumed to be legal under British law.[6] One 1999 case, Re "J" (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)[7] said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility, or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included evidence that circumcision carried some medical risk; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation might irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. The passage of the Human Rights Act 1998 has led to some speculation that the lawfulness of the circumcision of male children is unclear.[8] Year 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar). ... Medical necessity is generally considered that which is reasonable, necessary, and/or appropriate based on evidence-based clinical standards of care. ... The Human Rights Act 1998 is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom which received Royal Assent on November 9, 1998, and mostly came into force on October 2, 2000. ...

Fox and Thomson (2005) argue that consent cannot be given for non-therapeutic circumcision.[9] They say there is "no compelling legal authority for the common view that circumcision is lawful."

United States

In the United States, circumcision is not specifically unlawful. However some believe that the circumcision of a child violates general laws enacted for the protection of children. Doctors who circumcise children must take care that all applicable rules regarding informed consent are satisfied. If consent is invalid, then a circumcision is a battery. [10] MGM Bill is currently lobbying to extend the ban on female circumcision to males, arguing that banning female circumcision but allowing male circumcision violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. [11] Amendment XIV in the National Archives The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XIV) is one of the post-Civil War amendments (known as the Reconstruction Amendments), intended to secure rights for former slaves. ...

The North Dakota Supreme Court rejected a mother's attempt to prosecute her doctor for circumcising her child with her permission.[12]

In December 2004, Edwin B. Baxter was convicted of second degree child assault after he attempted to circumcise his son with a hunting knife. He was sentenced to serve three years in jail.[13]

As of July 2007, a divorced Oregon couple is in a legal dispute over circumcision. James H. Boldt, a convert to Judaism, wants his 12 year old son Misha to undergo the procedure; the child's mother, his ex-wife Lia Boldt opposes the procedure. James Boldt claim Misha is in favor of it while Lia Boldt claims Misha is too frightened of his father to refuse.[14]. Doctors Opposing Circumcision is campaigning in support of the mother's stance.[15] Richard Dawkins has commented on the case, calling the father's position "religiously inspired child abuse".[16] Clinton Richard Dawkins (born March 26, 1941) is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist, and popular science writer who holds the Charles Simonyi Chair for the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford University. ...

Australia

A non-binding research paper of the Queensland Law Reform Commission (Circumcision of Male Infants) concluded that "On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act", and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date.[17] No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed. Capital Brisbane Government Constitutional monarchy Governor Quentin Bryce Premier Peter Beattie (ALP) Federal representation  - House seats 28  - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05)  - Product ($m)  $158,506 (3rd)  - Product per capita  $40,170/person (6th) Population (End of November 2006)  - Population  4,164,590 (3rd)  - Density  2. ...

South Africa

The Children's Act 2007 makes the circumcision of male children under 16 unlawful except for religious or medical reasons. Eastern Cape Province passed a law (Application of Health Standards in Traditional Circumcision Act 2001) to regulate traditional circumcision, which causes the death or mutilation of many youths by traditonal surgeons each year. Among other provisions, the minimum age for circumcision is age 18. The Eastern Cape is a province of South Africa. ...

Israel

In Israel, an attempt to have circumcision ruled illegal was rejected by the Israeli Supreme Court.[18] The Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. ...

Netherlands

Ayaan Hirsi Ali, when she was a Member of Parliament in the Netherlands, asked Parliament to consider making the circumcision of male children unlawful.[19] Ayaan Hirsi Ali ( ; Somali: ; born Ayaan Hirsi Magan 13 November 1969[2] in Mogadishu, Somalia) is a feminist and political writer, daughter of the Somali scholar, politician, and revolutionary opposition leader Hirsi Magan Isse. ...

Sweden

In Sweden, the circumcision of minors may only be performed under anaesthesia and, unless performed by a physician, must be performed within the first two months of life.[20] Anesthesia (AE), also anaesthesia (BE), is the process of blocking the perception of pain and other sensations. ... The Doctor by Luke Fildes This article is about the term physician, one type of doctor; for other uses of the word doctor see Doctor. ...

USSR

In the USSR, before glasnost, Jewish ritual circumcision was forbidden. [21]

Finland

In August 2006, a Finnish court ruled a four-year-old Muslim boy's circumcision to be an assault. The case will now go to the Court of Appeals.[22]

Germany

In October 2006, a Turkish national who performed ritual circumcision on seven boys was convicted of causing dangerous bodily harm by the state court in Düsseldorf.[23] The title of this article contains the character ü. Where it is unavailable or not desired, the name may be represented as Duesseldorf. ...

Egypt

In June 2007, Egypt finally banned all female circumcision, the widely-practised removal of the clitoris. Officially the practice, which affects both Muslim and Christian women in Egypt and goes back to the time of the pharoahs, was banned in 1997 but doctors were allowed to operate "in exceptional cases". Health Minister Hatem al-Gabali decided to ban every doctor and member of the medical profession, in public or private establishments, from carrying out a clitoridectomy. ^[1] Female genital cutting (FGC) refers to a number of procedures performed for cultural, rather than medical, reasons on the female genitalia. ... The clitoris (Greek ) is a sexual organ that is present in biologically female mammals. ... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      A Christian () is a person who... Pharaoh is a title used to refer to any ruler, usually male, of the Egyptian kingdom in the pre-Christian, pre-Islamic period. ... Year 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar). ... Clitoridectomy is the surgical removal of the clitoris. ...

Forced circumcisions

There have been incidents of forced circumcisions ^[2]. In Africa, forced circumcisions have occurred in Kenya in 2002 ^[3] and 2006 ^[4] among the Bagishu people of Eastern Uganda (2007),^[5] and the Xhosa of South Africa (2004).^[6] Forced circumcisions also occurred in ethnic/religious conflicts in the Sudan (2003),^[7] during the Armenian Genocide (1915-1918),^[8] and also as part of forced religious conversions in both Pakistan (2004)^[9] and Indonesia (2001).^[10][11] There was a report of forced circumcisions during an anti-Greek pogrom in Turkey in 1955.^[12] In a case of sexual assault in Queensland, Australia (1997), a district court awarded a man damages for nervous shock after a botched attempt to circumcise him with a broken beer bottle in a drunken attack. Making Australian legal history, the award was made against the assailant for unlawful wounding.^[13] The Bagisu, alternately referred to as Gisu, Gishu, Masaba, or Sokwia (people of Bugisu) are a sub-group of the Bamasaaba people of Eastern Uganda, closely related to the Bukusu people of Kenya. ... The Xhosa (IPA ( )) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country. ... Sexual assault is any physical contact of a sexual nature without voluntary consent. ... Motto: Audax at Fidelis (Bold but Faithful) Other Australian states and territories Capital Brisbane Governor HE Ms Quentin Bryce Premier Peter Beattie (ALP) Area 1,852,642 km² (2st)  - Land 1,730,648 km²  - Water 121,994 km² (6. ...

References

is the 230th day of the year (231st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... April 23 is the 113th day of the year (114th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 82nd day of the year (83rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... Voice of America logo Voice of America (VOA), is the official external radio and television broadcasting service of the United States federal government. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... April 23 is the 113th day of the year (114th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... July 4 is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 180 days remaining. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Sunday Tribune is an broadsheet Irish Sunday newspaper published by Tribune Newspapers plc. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... April 23 is the 113th day of the year (114th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 278th day of the year (279th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 77th day of the year (78th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 27th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 77th day of the year (78th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• William E. Brigman. Circumcision as Child Abuse: The Legal and Constitutional Issues. 23 J Fam Law 337 (1985).

• Ross Povenmire. Do Parents Have the Legal Authority to Consent to the Surgical Amputation of Normal, Healthy Tissue From Their Infant Children?: The Practice of Circumcision in the United States. 7 Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 87 (1998-1999).

• Gregory J Boyle, J. Steven Svoboda, Christopher P Price, J Neville Turner. Circumcision of Healthy Boys: Criminal Assault? 7 Journal of Law and Medicine 301 (2000). The authors are leading anti-circumcision campaigners.

• Peter W Edge, Male circumcision after the human rights act 1998. 5 J Civil Liberties [U.K.] 320 (2000).

• Proposed bills to ban male circumcision in the U.S.: MGMbill.org