Urban, city, or town planning, deals with design of the built environment from the municipal and metropolitan perspective. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level. The Greek Hippodamus is often considered the father of city planning, for his design of Miletus, though examples of planned cities permeate antiquity. Muslims are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and hima and the more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise), although modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne. The expression built environment recognises that much of the physical world in which humans function and thrive has been intentionally created; is something aesthetically and functionally shared; and functions as an organism in the consumption of resources, disposal of wastes, and facilitation of productive enterprise within its bounds. ... // Scope and intentions According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject, Vitruvius De Architectura, good buildings should have Beauty (Venustas), Firmness (Firmitas) and Utility (Utilitas); architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. ... Landscape architecture is the art, planning, design, management, preservation and rehabilitation of the land and the design of man-made constructs. ... Urban design is related to urban planning, but focuses on the physical design of places and deals at a more fine-grained scale. ... Regional planning is a branch of planning that deals with the design and efficient placement of activities and infrastructure across a significantly large area of land. ... Hippodamus of Miletus (sometimes also called Hippodamos), was a Greek architect of the 5th century BC. It was he who introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities, in place of the previous intricacy and confusion. ... In Greek mythology, Miletus was the founder of the city described below. ... A New town or planned community or planned city is a city, town, or community that was designed from scratch, and grew up more or less following the plan. ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم) is an adherent of Islam. ... In general, zoning is the division of an area into sub-areas, called zones. ... This article covers the word as used in Islamic urban planning. ... Hima means (is Arabic for) inviolate zones solely for the conservation of natural capital, typically fields, wildlife and forests (contrast haram to protect areas for more immediate human purposes). ... Khalifa (خليفة ) is Arabic for stewardship of nature and family, and is a key obligation of a Muslim. ... The Congrès International dArchitecture Moderne (CIAM) (International Congress of Modern Architecture) (1928 - 1959) was the think tank of the Modern Movement (or International Style) in architecture. ...

City planning embraces the organization, or conscious influencing, of land-use distribution in an area already built-up or intended to become built-up.

History

The Indus Valley civilization is recognized as having been the first to develop urban planning. By 2600 BC some pre-Harappan settlements grew into cities containing thousands of people who were not primarily engaged in agriculture, creating a unified culture whose sudden appearance appears to have been the result of planned, deliberate effort. Some settlements appear to have been deliberately rearranged to conform to a conscious, well-developed plan. For this reason, the Indus Valley civilization is recognized as having first developed urban planning. The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. ... (Redirected from 2600 BC) (27th century BC - 26th century BC - 25th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2900 - 2334 BC – Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period. ... The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. ... The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. ...

In ancient times, Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of these schemes, as in Turin. The basic plan is a central plaza with city services, surrounded by a compact grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away sewage, even in sieges. Ancient Rome was a civilization that existed in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East between 753 BC and its downfall in AD 476. ... Location within Italy Region Piedmont Province Turin Area   – Total   – Water 130 km² (50 mi²) ##.# km² (#.# mi²) #.##% Population   – Total (2002)   – Density 857,433 6,596/km² Time zone CET: UTC+1 Latitude Longitude   45°04′ N 7°40′ E1. ... Plaza is a Spanish word related to field which describes an open urban public space, such as a city square. ...

Planning and aesthetics

In developed countries there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in the environment, such as bollards (signposts), signs, and hoardings (temporary fences around construction sites). Other issues that generate strong debate amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density and planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate.

Successful urban planning considers character, of "home" and "sense of place", local identity, respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding of the "urban grain" or "townscape," pedestrians and other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, such as flood zones.

Some say that the medieval piazza and arcade are the most widely appreciated elements of successful urban design, as demonstrated by the Italian cities of Siena and Bologna. A piazza is an open square in a city, often used as a marketplace, found in Italy. ... This page is about Siena, Italy. ... Bologna (from Latin Bononia, Bulaggna in the local dialect) is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy, between the Po River and the Apennines. ...

While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch planners are important in managing the growth of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged as smart growth. In general, zoning is the division of an area into sub-areas, called zones. ... Growth management is a set of techniques used by government to ensure that as the population grows that there are services available to meet their demands. ... Smart growth development policies aim to prevent urban sprawl and pollution, and reduce the profligate use of non-renewable fuels, particularly an excessive dependency on private cars in industrialised countries. ...

There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. See List of planned cities. Some of the most successful planned cities consist of cells that include park-space, commerce and housing, and then repeat the cell. Usually cells are separated by streets. Often each cell has unique monuments and gardening in the park, and unique gates or boundary-markers for the edges of the cell. The commercial areas naturally become diverse. These differences help instill a sense of place, while the similarities of the cells make each place in the city familiar. This is a list of planned cities (sometimes known as planned communities or new towns) by country. ...

Planning and safety

Many cities are constructed in places subject to flood, storm surges, extreme weather or war. City planners can cope with these. If the dangers can be localized (for flood or storm surge), the affected regions can be made into parkland or greenbelt, often with lovely results. Another practical method is simply to build the city on ridges, and the parks and farms in valleys.

Extreme weather, flood, war or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure evacuation routes and emergency operations centers. These are relatively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Composite satellite image showing the progress of a hurricane weather system approaching the East Coast of the United States Weather comprises all the various phenomena that occur in the atmosphere of a planet. ... Look up Flood on Wiktionary, the free dictionary A flood (in Old English flod, a word common to Teutonic languages; compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float) is an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging land, a deluge. ... An act of war - the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan during World War II War is a state of widespread conflict between states, organisations, or relatively large groups of people, which is characterised by the use of violent, physical force between combatants or upon civilians. ... Evacuation can have several meanings: In wilderness first aid, evacuation is the transport of a seriously injured person out of the wilderness to the nearest point an ambulance can reach to take them to the hospital, or to the nearest emergency room. ...

Many cities also have planned, built safety features, such as levees, retaining walls, and shelters. A levee, levée (from the feminine past participle of the French verb lever, to raise), floodbank or stopbank is a natural or artificial embankment or dike, usually earthen, which parallels the course of a river. ... Structure in the foreground is called a mud box - a kind of retaining wall built to hold the flood waters in check. ...

Some planning methods might help an elite group to control ordinary citizens. This was certainly the case of Rome (Italy), where Fascism in the 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the elegant town. France currently uses similar methods to control ethnic-Arabic groups on welfare. City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC mythical, 1st millennium BC Region Latium Mayor Walter Veltroni (Democratici di Sinistra) Area  - City Proper  1290 km² Population  - City (2004)  - Metropolitan  - Density (city proper) 2,546,807 almost 4,000,000 1... Fascism (in Italian, fascismo), capitalized, was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... // Events and trends The 1930s were spent struggling for a solution to the global depression. ... It has been suggested that Suburbia be merged into this article or section. ... for other uses please see Crime (disambiguation) A crime is an act that violates a political or moral law. ...

In recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practising the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behavior and consequently to "design-out crime" and to consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianization" as ways of making urban life more bearable.

City planning tries to control criminality with structures designed from theories like socio-architecture or environmental determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful design in place of functionalism. for other uses please see Crime (disambiguation) A crime is an act that violates a political or moral law. ... Socio-architecture is a phrase coined by psychologist Humphry Osmond and Canadian architect Kyo Izumi as part of their research for the best architectural form for Osmonds Weyburn, Saskatchewan mental hospital in 1951. ... Environmental determinism is the view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture. ... Functionalism, in architecture, is the principle that architects should design a building based on the purpose of that building. ...

Other social theories point out that in England and most countries since the 18th century, the transformation of societies from rural agriculture to industry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market. (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... For the song by the California punk band Pennywise, see Society (song). ...

Planning and transport

There is a direct, well-researched connection between the density of an urban environment, and the amount of transport into that environment. Good quality transport is often followed by development. Development beyond a certain density can quickly overcrowd transport.

Good planning attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transport. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-storey apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and four-lane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks further away.

Densities are usually measured as the floor area of buildings divided by the land area, or in a residential context, by the number of dwellings divided by the land area. Floor area ratios below 1.5 are low density. Plot ratios above five are very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most city centers are well above five. Walk-up apartments with basement garages can easily achieve a density of three. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or more. Higher densities tempt developers with higher profits. City authorities may try to encourage lower densities to reduce infrastructure costs, though some observers note that low densities may not accommodate enough population to provide adequate demand or funding for that infrastructure. In the field of zoning, floor area ratio refers to a limit on how much total space, expressed as a fraction of the total size of the parcel of land involved, may be consumed by the floor or floors of a building or buildings constructed on the parcel. ... The expression exurb (for extra-urban) was coined in the 1950s, by Auguste Comte Spectorsky in his book The Exurbanites, to describe the ring of prosperous rural communities beyond the suburbs that, due to availability via the new high-speed limited-access highways, were becoming dormitory communities for an urban...

Automobiles are well suited to serve densities as high as 1.5 with basic limited-access highways. Innovations such as car-pool lanes and rush hour-use taxes may get automobiles to neighbourhoods with plot ratios as high as 2.5. A small variety of cars, the most popular kind of automobile. ... Mitchell Freeway in Perth, Western Australia For other uses, see Highway (disambiguation). ... A permanent, separated high-occupancy vehicle lane on I-91 in Connecticut A high occupancy vehicle (or HOV) is any vehicle with a driver and one or more (or sometimes two or more, or three or more) passengers. ... Rush hour in a city A rush hour is a part of the day with busy traffic and hence traffic congestion on the roads and crowded public transport; normally the two periods in a day when people are travelling to or from work or school. ...

Densities above 5 are well-served by trains. Most such areas were actually developed in response to trains in the middle 1800s, and have historically high ridership that have never used automobiles for their work trip.

A widespread problem is that there is a range of residential densities between about two and five that causes severe traffic jams of automobiles, yet are too low to be commercially served by trains or light rail. The conventional solution is to use buses, but these and light rail systems may fail where automobiles and excess road network capacity are both available, achieving less than 1% ridership. Some theoretricians speculate that personal rapid transit might coax people from their automobiles, and yet effectively serve intermediate densities, but this has not been demonstrated. The Lewis-Mogridge Position claims that increasing road space is not an effective way of relieving traffic jams as latent or induced demand invariably emerges to restore a socially-tolerable level of congestion. There are various types of trains designed for particular purposes, see rail transport operations. ... This article is about light rail systems in general. ... A bus is a large wheeled vehicle, intended to carry numerous persons in addition to the driver. ... Older children can use personal rapid transit without adult help. ... The Lewis-Mogridge Position was formulated in 1990. ... Induced demand is the phenomenon that after supply increases, more of a good is consumed. ...

Planning and suburbanization

In some countries declining satisfaction with the urban environment is held to blame for continuing migration to smaller towns and rural areas (so-called urban exodus), so successful urban planning can bring benefits to a much larger hinterland or city region and help to reduce both congestion along transport routes and the wastage of energy implied by excessive commuting. Migration occurs when living things move from one biome to another. ... Rural exodus is a term used to describe the migratory patterns that normally occur in a region following the mechanisation of agriculture. ... The hinterland is the rural territory associated with an urban area, often a port. ... This term has been in use since about 1950 by urbanists, economists and land-use planners to mean not just the administrative area of a recognisable city or conurbation but also its hinterland that will often be far bigger. ... Commuting is the process of traveling between a place of residence and a place of work. ...

A strong belief that the behaviour of individuals living in or frequenting an area can be heavily influenced by its physical design and layout is called environmental determinism. Environmental determinism is the view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture. ...

Planning and the environment

Arcology seeks to unify the fields of ecology and architecture, especially landscape architecture, to achieve a harmonious environment for all living things. On a small scale, the eco-village theory has become popular, as it emphasizes a traditional 100-140 person scale for communities. Arcology is a term invented by architect Paolo Soleri, and is a portmanteau of architecture and ecology. ... (Ecology is sometimes used incorrectly as a synonym for the natural environment. ... // Scope and intentions According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject, Vitruvius De Architectura, good buildings should have Beauty (Venustas), Firmness (Firmitas) and Utility (Utilitas); architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. ... Landscape architecture is the art, planning, design, management, preservation and rehabilitation of the land and the design of man-made constructs. ... Ecovillages are socially, economically and ecologically sustainable villages of 50 to 150 people. ...

In most advanced urban or village planning models, local context is critical. In many, gardening assumes a central role not only in agriculture but in the daily life of citizens. A series of related movements including green anarchism, eco-anarchism, eco-feminism and Slow Food have put this in a political context as part of a focus on smaller systems of resource extraction, and waste disposal, ideally as part of living machines which do such recycling automatically, just as nature does. The modern theory of natural capital emphasizes this as the primary difference between natural and infrastructural capital, and seeks an economic basis for rationalizing a move back towards smaller village units. A common form of planning that leads to suburban sprawl is single use zoning. Gardening is an activity—the art and craft of growing plants—with a goal of creating a beautiful environment. ... Green anarchists compose a diverse and open movement of people who take influences from a variety of different places. ... Eco-anarchism argues that small eco-villages (of no more than a few hundred people) are a scale of human living preferable to civilization, and that infrastructure and political systems should be re-organized to ensure that these are created. ... Ecofeminism is a biocentric environmental movement with cultural and social concerns. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Green politics is a body of political ideas informed by environmentalism aimed at developing a sustainable society. ... The concept of living machines represents a particularly interesting variant on intelligent machines, and has mostly been associated with water treatment systems that make use of natural bioremediation processes such as wetlands to remove contaminants from sewage and other waste water sources. ... Natural capital refers to the mineral, plant, and animal formations of the Earths biosphere when viewed as a means of production of oxygen, water filter, erosion preventer, or provider of other natural services. ... Infrastructural capital refers to any physical means of production or means of protection beyond that which can be gathered or found directly in nature, i. ... Green economics loosely defines a theory of economics by which an economy is considered to be component of the ecosystem in which it resides. ... A practice of urban planning where everyday uses are separated from each other and where land use of the same type is grouped together. ...

References

• Tunnard, Christopher and Boris Pushkarev, Man-Made America: Chaos or Control?: An Inquiry into Selected Problems of Design in the Urbanized Landscape, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963. This book won the National Book Award, strictly America; a time capsule of photography and design approach.

This article is about the city in Connecticut. ... For other uses, see Yale (disambiguation). ... The National Book Awards is the most important literary prize in the United States, presented annually for the best book by a living US citizen published in the US. The awards have been presented since 1950 in at least one category, and is presently awarded in each of four categories...

See also

• American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP)
• Concentric zone model
• Crime prevention through environmental design
• eGovernment
• Environmental design
• Geographic information system (GIS)
• Grid plan
• Landscape architecture
• List of urban planners
• List of urban theorists
• Linear city
• Master of Urban Planning (MUP)
• New town
• New urbanism
• Unitary urbanism
• Urban renewal
• Sector model
• SimCity
• Space syntax
• Spatial planning
• Town and Country Planning Association
• Town and Country Planning in the United Kingdom
• Urban planning in Singapore
• Prague Institute
• Hexagonal Town

In demography, the concentric zone model of a city was put forth by Robert E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess, and Roderick D. McKenzie in The City (1925). ... Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is a multi-disciplinary approach to deterring criminal behavior. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Environmental design refers to taking environmental concerns into consideration in the design process. ... A geographic information system (GIS) is a system for creating and managing spatial data and associated attributes. ... The grid plan is a type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. ... Landscape architecture is the art, planning, design, management, preservation and rehabilitation of the land and the design of man-made constructs. ... List of urban planners chronological by initial year of plan. ... List of urban theorists, in alphabetical order: Christopher Alexander Donald Appleyard Richard Florida Joel Garreau Sir Peter Hall Jane Jacobs Kevin Lynch Lewis Mumford Witold Rybczynski link title== See also == List of urban planners List of planned communities New town Urban design Urban economics Urban planner Urban planning [1] Categories... The linear city was an urban plan for an elongated urban formation. ... The Master in Urban Planning (MUP) or the Master of Urban Planning is a two-year academic/professional Masters degree that qualifies graduates to work as urban planners. ... A New town or planned community or planned city is a city, town, or community that was designed from scratch, and grew up more or less following the plan. ... Houses in Kentlands, Maryland, an early new urbanist neighborhood. ... A critique of urbanism developed in the [1950s] by the Lettrist International, consisting of a range of practices including but not limited to: the situation the derive or drift psychogeography detournement recuperation revolution The critical practice continued to be developed by the situationists until they abandoned it for the theory... Urban renewal (also called urban regeneration in British English) is a movement in urban planning that reached its peak in the United States from the late 1940s through the early 1970s. ... Proposed in 1939 by economist Homer Hoyt, the sector model in urban land use and demography modified the concentric zone model of city development. ... A screenshot of SimCity on the Atari ST SimCity is a real-time strategy/simulation city-building computer game (or software toy). It is game developer Maxis flagship product. ... The term space syntax encompasses a set of theories and techniques for the analysis of spatial configurations. ... Spatial planning refers to the methods used by the public sector to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces of various scales. ... The Town and Country Planning Association is Englands oldest environmental charity. ... Town and Country Planning is the system by which the British government seeks to maintain a balance between economic development and environmental quality in England. ... Urban planning in Singapore has formulated and guided its physical development from the day the modern city was founded in 1819 as a British colony to the thriving, independent country it is today. ... The Prague Institute for Global Urban Development is a research institute which advices urban planners globally. ... The Hexagonal Town, also know as Hex City, is an example of town planning that aims to better serve new and developing cities in the areas of transport, community and connectivity. ...

External links

• American Planning Association — organization for professional planners
• Association of Metropolitan Planning Organizations
• Carfree.com
• City Comforts
• Cyburbia — urban planning-related message boards, wiki, image galleries, and hierarchical link directory
• PLANetizen — planning news
• Planum — The European Journal of Planning
• Royal Town Planning Institute — professional organisation of planners in UK and worldwide
• Urban Land Institute
• Urban Planet — An online forum for urbanists