Present day ruins of Cividade. The city's fall was the basis of the book «Uma Deusa na Bruma» (A Goddess in the Mist) by João Aguilar.

Entrance of the city.

Pavement with flagstone and ruins of Cividade.

Cividade de Terroso was an important city of the Castro culture in North-western Iberian Peninsula, located in Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal. Castros de Baroña, Baroña, Porto Do Son, Coruña Castro de Troña, Pías, Ponteareas, Pontevedra Castro culture (Cultura Castreja in Portuguese, Cultura Castrexa in Galician and Cultura castreña in Spanish) is the archaeologists descriptor for the culture of the northwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe. ... Póvoa de Varzim - Wikipedia /**/ @import /w/skins-1. ...

The city, known in the Middle Ages as Civitas Teroso, was built at the top of Mount Cividade, in the parish of Terroso, in Póvoa de Varzim, less than 5 km from the coast, near the eastern edge of the modern city. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... A freguesia is a secondary local administrative unit in Portugal and the former Portuguese overseas province of Macao. ...

Situated in the heart of the Castro region, the Cividade prospered due to its strong defensive walls and its location near the ocean, which facilitated trade with the maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean Sea. However, this trade eventually attracted Roman attention and the Cividade and the Castro culture perished at the end of the Lusitanian War, in which Rome's victory was secured through the murder of Viriathus, leader of the Lusitanians. The word civilization (or civilisation) has a variety of meanings related to human society. ... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ... Roman or Romans may refer to: History Ancient Rome Roman Kingdom (753 BC to 509 BC) Roman Republic (509 BC to 44 BC) Roman Empire (44 BC to AD 476) Roman citizen Byzantine Empire (330 to 1453), also known as the Eastern Roman Empire or the Empire of the Greeks... Viriathus (known as Viriato in Portuguese and Castilian) (180 BC - 139 BC) was the most important leader of the Lusitanian tribe that resisted Roman expansion into the regions of Western Iberia, where the Roman province of Lusitania would be established (in the areas comprising Portugal, south of the Douro river... The Lusitanians are seen as the ancestors of the Portuguese, that lived in the western area of the Iberian Peninsula. ...

History

The settlement of Cividade de Terroso was founded during the Bronze Age, between 800 and 900 BC, as a result of the displacement of the resident people in the fertile plain of Beiriz and Várzea of Póvoa de Varzim. That date is supported by the discovery of egg-shaped cesspits, excavated in 1981 by Armando Coelho, where he collected fragments of four vases of the previous period to the establishment of the settlement of the Cividade. Thus, it is part of the oldest castros, such as the Santa Luzia or Roriz castros. The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... Centuries: 10th century BC - 9th century BC - 8th century BC Decades: 850s BC 840s BC 830s BC 820s BC 810s BC - 800s BC - 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC 750s BC Events and Trends 804 BC - Hadad-nirari IV of Assyria conquers Damascus. ... Centuries: 11th century BC - 10th century BC - 9th century BC Decades: 950s BC 940s BC 930s BC 920s BC 910s BC - 900s BC - 890s BC 880s BC 870s BC 860s BC 850s BC Events and Trends 909 BC - Zhou xiao wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. ... A cesspit is a pit, or covered cistern, which can be used for refuse or sewage. ... 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Castro maintained trade relations with the civilizations of the Mediterranean, mainly during the Carthaginian dominium in South-eastern Iberian Peninsula.

During the Punic Wars, the Romans had learned of the wealth of the Castro region in gold and tin. Viriathus, who led the Lusitanian troops, hindered northward growth of the Roman territory at the Douro River, but his murder in 138 BC opened the way for the Roman legions. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage. ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Atomic mass 196. ... General Name, Symbol, Number tin, Sn, 50 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous gray Atomic mass 118. ... View of the river mouth from Portos Crystal Palace Gardens, facing West Douro (Latin Durius, Spanish Duero, Portuguese Douro) is one of the major rivers of Portugal and Spain, flowing from its source near Soria across central Spain and Portugal to its outlet at Oporto. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 143 BC 142 BC 141 BC 140 BC 139 BC - 138 BC - 137 BC 136 BC... A modern reconstruction of a roman centurion around 70 AD The Roman legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) was the basic military unit of the ancient Roman army. ...

Decimus Junius Brutus led a campaign in order to annex the Castro region, which lead to the complete destruction of the Cividade, just after the death of Viriathus. The deeds of the Roman commander had echoed in Rome, where he passed to be known by the title Callaicus - from Gallaecia, name by which the Romans knew the Castro region, in honour of the people that settled in the area of Calle - the Callaeci, later the Roman Portus Calle, today's Porto. Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus was a Roman politician and general of the 2nd century BC. Decimus Junius Brutus lead the Roman legions in the conquest of western Iberia after the death of Viriathus, chieftain of the Lusitanians. ... City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC (mythical), early 1st millennium BC (archaeological) Region Latium Area  - City Proper  1285 km² Population  - City (2004)  - Metropolitan  - Density (city proper) 2,553,873 almost 4,300,000 1. ... District or region Porto Mayor   - Party Rui Rio PSD Area 41. ...

Cividade de Terroso during the first archaeology works in 1906.

Some time later, Cividade was rebuilt and became heavily Romanized, starting the castro’s last urban era.

The region was incorporated in the Roman Empire and totally pacified during the rule of Caesar Augustus. In the coastal plain, a Roman villa was created, property of a Roman family known as the Euracini. The family was joined by Castro people that started to return to the life in the plain, and Villa Euracini was built. The fishery activity developed with the cetariæ, a Roman method of preserving fish in brine. Thus, from the 1st Century onwards, and during the imperial period, the gradual abandonment of Mount Cividade started. The famous statue of Octavian at the Prima Porta Caesar Augustus (Latin:IMP·CAESAR·DIVI·F·AVGVSTVS) ¹ (23 September 63 BC–19 August AD 14), known to modern historians as Octavian for the period of his life prior to 27 BC, is considered the first and one of the most... The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100. ...

In Memória Paroquiais (Parish Memories) of 1758, the director António Fernandes da Loba with other clergymen from the parish of Terroso, wrote: This parish is all surrounded by farming fields, and by just one part, almost in the middle of it, there is a more elevated mount, that is about a third of the farming fields of the given parish and the Ancient say that this was the Mount City of Moors, because it is known as Mount Cividade. 1758 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

The Lieutenant Veiga Leal in the News of Póvoa de Varzim in May 24 of 1758 writes: "The Mount known as Cividade, where one can see several hints of houses, that people say they formed a city, to this town came cars with bricks from the ruins of that one."

Group of workers who made the excavations in 1906 in Cividade.

Cividade was later rarely cited by other authors. Nevertheless, in the early 20th century, Rocha Peixoto encouraged his friend António Dos Santos Graça in order to subsidize works of archaeology in the Cividade. (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ...

Excavations began in June 5th of the year 1906 with 25 manual workers and continued until October of the same year, interrupted due to bad weather; they recommenced in May 1907, finishing that same year. The materials discovered were taken to museums in the city of Porto. June 5 is the 156th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (157th in leap years), with 209 days remaining. ... 1906 (MCMVI) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... The National Gallery in London, a famous museum. ... District or region Porto Mayor   - Party Rui Rio PSD Area 41. ...

After the death of Rocha Peixoto, in 1909, some rocks of the Cividade had been used to pave some streets of the Póvoa de Varzim, explicitly Rua Santos Minho Street and Rua das Hortas. Occasionally, groups of scouts of the Portuguese Youth and others in the decades of 1950 and 1960, made diggings in search for archaeology pieces. This was seen as archaeological vandalism, but continued even after the Cividade was listed as a property of Public Interest in 1961. 1909 (MCMIX) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ...

In 1980, the City council of the Póvoa de Varzim invited Armando Coelho to pursue further archaeological works; these took place during the summer of that year. Later, the city acquired the acropolis area and constructed the archaeological museum of the Cividade de Terroso in its entrance. Acropolis in Athens. ...

In 2005, groups of Portuguese and Spanish (Galician) archaeologists had started to study the hypothesis of this cividade and six others to be classified as World Heritage sites of UNESCO. The visit of UNESCO's inspectors is foreseen for 2007. There are two well-known places called Galicia: Galicia (Spain), an autonomous community in Spain. ... Elabana Falls is in Lamington National Park, part of the Central Eastern Rainforest Reserves World Heritage site in Queensland, Australia. ... UNESCO logo UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ...

Defensive system

Ruins of one of the Cividade's walls.

Remains of a high, wide and resistant wall.

The most typical characteristic of the castros is its defensive system. The inhabitants had chosen to start living in the mount as a way of protection against attacks and lootings by rival tribes. The Cividade was erected at 152 metres height (about 500 feet), allowing an excellent position to monitor the entire region. One of the sides, the north, was blocked by Mount São Félix, where a smaller castro rose, the Castro de Laundos, that served as a surveillance post.

The movements of Turduli and Celtici proceeding from the South of the Iberian Peninsula in direction to the North are referred by Strabo and have motivated the improvement of the defensive systems of the castros around 500 B.C. The Turduli were an ancient celtiberian tribe akin to the Lusitanians, living in the south of modern Portugal, in the east of the province of Alentejo, along the Guadiana valley. ... The Celtici were an ancient celtic tribe akin to the Lusitanians and Calaicians or Gallaeci, living in what today is the province of Alentejo in modern Portugal. ... the Greek georgapher Strabo, in a 16th‑century engraving. ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created...

Cividade de Terroso is one of the most heavily defended castros, given that the acropolis was surrounded by three rings of walls. These walls were built at different stages, due to the growth of the town.

The walls were composed of great blocks without mortar and were adapted to topography of the mount. The areas of easier access (South, East and West) possessed high, wide and resistant walls; while the ones in land with steep slopes were protected mainly by strengthening the local features. Mortar has several meanings: A mortar is a military weapon into which is dropped a mortar shell, which is then fired in a high ballistic trajectory. ...

That can easily be visible with the discovered structures in the East that present a strong defensive system that reaches 5,30 metres (17,4 feet) of thickness. While in the Northeast, the wall was constructed using natural granite that only was crowned by a wall of rocks. Quarrying granite for the Mormon Temple, Utah Territory. ...

The entrance that interrupted the wall was paved with flagstone with about 1,70 metres (5,6 feet) of width. The defensive perimeter seems to have been complemented with a ditch of about 1 metre (3,3 feet) of depth and width in base of the mount, as it was detected while a house was being built in the north of the mount.

Urban structure

The first map of Cividade made during the archelogical works of 1906.

Within the interior of the three rings of walls, in the acropolis, ruins of great diversity subsist, especially the funerary enclosures, which are extremely rare in the Castro world.

In the archaeological works carried through the beginning of 20th century, the Cividade seemed to have a disorganized structure, but more recent data suggests instead an organization whose characteristics stem from older levels of occupation, which had been ignored during the first archaeological works.

Each one of the quadrants of the Cividade is divided in nuclei around a family square almost always paved with flagstone. Some houses possessed a forecourt. In architecture a forecourt is an open area in front of a structures entrance. ...

At its peak, the Cividade would enclose nearly 12 hectares (30 acres) and was inhabited by several hundred people.

Stages

Inside a house.

Family yard.

Family setting of Cividade de Terroso

Cardium was one of the main streets of the city.

Houses in the Cividade.

The Cividade passed for some urbanization stages: during the first centuries, the small habitations were constructed with vegetal elements mixed with adobe. Renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico Adobe is a building material composed of water, sandy clay and straw or other organic materials, which is shaped into bricks using wooden frames and dried in the sun . ...

The first constructions in rock started to take form in the 5th century B.C., supplies that became to be used due to technological progress with the production of iron peaks, a technology that was only available in Asia Minor, but that was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by Phoenician settlers in the Atlantic Coast during the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey. ...

The constructions of this time are, characteristically, circular with diameters between 4 and 5 meters and with walls with 30 the 40 cm of thickness. The granite rocks were fractured or splintered, later to be located in two lines, with the smoothest part for the exterior and interior of the house. The space between the two rocks was filled with small rocks and mortar of gross sand giving a robust structure to the walls.

In the last stage of the Cividade, the Roman stage (starting in 138-136 B.C.), following the destruction by Decimus Junius Brutus, there is an urban reorganization with use of the new constructive techniques and alteration of forms and dimensions; mostly with the appearance of quadrangular structures, in substitution of circular typically of the Castro culture. The coverings start to use “tegula” instead of vegetal material with adobe. TEGULA: the Latin term for the convex covering tile of a roof, as distinguished from the imbrex, the concave tile. ...

During this stage, the used rocks for the construction of the habitations were quadrangular; the project of two lines remained, but the interior space was wider and filled with gross sand or adobe and rocks of small or average size, resulting in thicker walls with 45 to 60 cm.

Family settings

The family settings, composed by four or five circular divisions, encircle a paved yard with flagstone to where the doors of the different divisions converged. These central yards had important role in family life and were where the daily family activities would take place. These nuclei would be closed by key, disclosing the concern for privacy by families.

The interior of the constructions of the second stage, previous to the Roman, possessed fine floors made of adobe or gross sand. Some of these floors were decorated with the impression of ropes, wave drawings and impression of circles, especially in fireplaces. In the Roman-influence stage, these floors had become well-taken care of, being denser and thicker.

Streets

The family settings were divided by narrow roads with somewhat public spaces. The two main streets had the typical Roman orientation of the Decumanus and Cardium. The Decumanus was a street that slightly followed the wall to the East for the West and slightly curved for Southwest from the crossroad with the Cardium (North-South street), finishing in the entrance of the Cividade. The exterior access was fulfilled by a delicate descending until the way that is still used today to enter in the Cividade.

These main roads divided the settlement in four parts. Each one of these parts was composed of four to five family settings.

In some points of the city, vestiges of sewers or narrow channels had been discovered; these would serve to direct rain water.

Culture

The population was devoted to agriculture of cereals and vegetables, fishery, recollection, shepherding and worked metals, textiles and ceramics. From the interior of the Iberian Peninsula cultural influences had arrived, beyond the ones proceeding from the Mediterranean through commerce. In a draw in a mountainous region, a shepherd guides a flock of about 20 sheep amidst scrub and olive trees. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith Look up Metal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Fixed Partial Denture, or Bridge The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικος (keramikos, having to do with pottery). The term covers inorganic non-metallic materials whose formation is due to the action of heat. ...

The Castro culture is known by having defensive walls in their cities and villages, with circular houses in mount tops and for its characteristic ceramics, widely popular among them, and it dies with the Roman acculturation and the movement of the populations for the coastal plain, where the strong Roman cultural presence, from the 2nd century BC onwards, is visible in the vestiges of Roman villas found there where, currently, the city of the Póvoa de Varzim is located (Old Town of Póvoa de Varzim, Alto de Martim Vaz and Junqueira), andin the parishes of Estela (Vila Mendo) and near the Chapel of Santo André in Aver-o-Mar. (3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) // Events 175 BCE - Antiochus IV Epiphanes, took possession of the Syrian throne, at the murder of his brother Seleucus IV Philopator, which rightly belonged to his nephew Demetrius I Soter. ...

Feeding

The population lived mainly from agriculture, but they also ate sea-food, breed and hunted animals.

The population lived mainly from agriculture, mainly with the culture of cereals such as wheat and barley, and of vegetables (the broadbean) and acorn. This article is about grains in general. ... Species T. boeoticum T. compactum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum References:   ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat (Triticum spp. ... Binomial name Hordeum vulgare L. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is a major food and animal feed crop, a member of the grass family Poaceae. ... Vegetables in a market Venn diagram representing the relationship between (botanical) fruits and vegetables. ... Acorns of Sessile Oak The acorn is the fruit of oaks (genera Quercus, Lithocarpus and Cyclobalanopsis, in the family Fagaceae). ...

The concheiro found in the Cividade showed that they ate limpets, mussels and Sea urches in raw or cooked. These species are still broadly common. Fishery must not have been regular, given the lack of archaeological evidences, but the discovery of hooks and net weights discloses that, already, they fished fish of considerable size such as the grouper and the snook. Genera Acmaea Bathyacmaea Lottia Notoacmea Pectinodonta Problacmaea Limpets are marine mollusks in the family Acmaeidae with flattened, cone-shaped shells. ... Subclasses Heterodonta Palaeoheterodonta A mussel is a bivalve mollusk that can be found in lakes, rivers, creeks, intertidal areas, and throughout the ocean. ... Genera Acanthistius Alphestes Anyperidon Caprodon Cephalopholis Cromileptes Dermatolepis Epinephelus Gonioplectrus Gracila HypoplectrodesLiopropoma Mycteroperca Niphon Paranthias Plectropomus Saloptia Triso Variola For the computer program, see Grouper (Windows application). ... Snook can refer to one of the following: The city of Snook, Texas. ...

Barley was cultivated to produce a kind of beer, which was nicknamed zythos. Beer was disrespected by Roman and Greeks who considered this a drink of Barbarians, given the fact that they were accustomed to the subtleness of wines. Acorn was triturated to create a kind of flour. A selection of bottled beers A selection of cask beers Beer is the worlds oldest and most popular alcoholic beverage. ... // Greek origin of the term Barbarian comes the French barbarien or Medieval Latin barbarinus, from Latin barbaria, from Latin barbarus, from the ancient Greek word βάρβαρος (barbaros) which meant a non-Greek, someone whose (first) language was not Greek. ... Wine is an alcoholic beverage produced by the fermentation of fruit, typically grapes though a number of other fruits are also quite popular - such as plum, elderberry and blackcurrant. ... Look up flour in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Recollection of wild plants, fruits, seeds and roots was a complement for feeding; eating and collecting wild blackberries, dandelion, clovers and even kelps. Some of these vegetables are still used by the local population. The Romans introduced the practice of the consumption of wine and olive oil. Species Rubus fruticosus- Common Blackberry and hundreds more microspecies (the subgenus also includes the dewberries) See also Black Raspberry, a fruit sometimes confused with blackberries. ... Species See text. ... Clover (Trifolium) is a genus of about 300 species of plants in the pea family Fabaceae. ... Families Alariaceae Chordaceae Laminariaceae Lessoniaceae Phyllariaceae Pseudochordaceae Kelp are large seaweeds, belonging to the brown algae and classified in the order Laminariales. ... Wine is an alcoholic beverage produced by the fermentation of fruit, typically grapes though a number of other fruits are also quite popular - such as plum, elderberry and blackcurrant. ... A bottle of olive oil. ...

The used animals by the Castro people are confirmed by classic documents and archaeological registers, there were horses, pigs, cows and sheep that would be used in all their capacities. One should notice that due to a statute in society, horses, also dogs, were not used for feeding. Binomial name Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758 nugget For other uses, see Horse (disambiguation). ... Species Sus barbatus Sus bucculentus Sus cebifrons Sus celebensis Sus domesticus Sus heureni Sus philippensis Sus salvanius Sus scrofa Sus timoriensis Sus verrucosus Pigs are ungulates native to Eurasia collectively grouped under the genus Sus within the Suidae family. ... COW is an acronym for a number of things: Can of worms The COW programming language, an esoteric programming language. ... Species See text. ...

Hen house birds have little registry during the Castro period, but had become frequent during the Roman period.

Although there are also only a few registries in the Cividade, hunting must have been something usual given that if it is known from classic sources, such as Strabo and Pliny that the region was very rich in fauna, from wild horses, bears, deer, wild boars, foxes, beavers, rabbits, hares and varied birds, that would be an accessible feeding resource. There are two famous persons named Pliny: Pliny the Elder, a Roman nobleman, scientist and historian who died in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD The great-nephew of the former, Pliny the Younger, a statesman, orator, and writer who lived between 62 AD and 113 AD. This... Genera Ailuropoda Ursus Tremarctos Arctodus(extinct) A bear is a large mammal of the order Carnivora, family Ursidae. ... Subfamilies Capreolinae Cervinae Hydropotinae Muntiacinae A deer is a ruminant mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. ... Binomial name Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 The Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the domesticated pig. ... A Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) A fox is a member of any of 27 species of small omnivorous canids. ... Species C. canadensis C. fiber Beavers are semi-aquatic rodents native to North America and Europe. ... Genera Pentalagus Bunolagus Nesolagus Romerolagus Brachylagus Sylvilagus Oryctolagus Poelagus Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae, found in many parts of the world. ... Species Many, see text Hares and jackrabbits belong to family Leporidae, and mostly in genus Lepus. ...

Handcrafts

Castro ceramics had many different drawings.

Castro ceramics (goblets and vases) evolved during the ages, from a primitive system to the use of potter wheels. However, the amphorae and the use of the glass only started to be common with the Romanization. These amphorae, essentially, served for the transport and storage of cereals, fruits, wine and olive oil.

Ceramics found in the Cividade de Terroso had, many of them, local identity. Pottery was seen as a masculine work and had been found in great number and great variety, showing that it was a cheap, important and accessible produtct.

However, Cividade's ceramic structure are practically identical to the ones found in other castros of the same period. The decoration of the vases was of the incisive type, even so scapulae and impressed vases also existed; adobe lace, in rope form, with or without incisions are also found.

Drawings in "S", assigned as palmípedes, are frequently found in engraved vases, these could be printed with other printed or engraved drawings. Other decorative forms, that can appear mixed and with diverse techniques, include circles, triangles, semicircles, lines, in zig-zag, in a total of about two hundred of different kinds of drawings.

Weaving was sufficiently generalized and was seen as a feminine obligation and was also progressing, in special during the Roman period, having been found some weights of sewing press and sets of ten of cossoiros. The discovery of shears came to strengthen the idea of the systematic breeding of sheep to use their wool.

Metallurgy in Cividade de Terroso.

Numerous vestiges of metallurgic activities had been detected and great discovered amounts of casting slags, fibulae, fragmented of objects in iron and residues of other metals, mostly lead, copper/bronze, tin and perhaps gold. Gatos (for repairing ceramics), pins,fíbulae, stili and needles in copper or bronze, disclosing that the work in bronze and its leagues was one of the most common activities of the Cividade. The iron was used for many daily objects, being found some nails, but also hooks and a tip of a scythe or dagger. Aquamarine, platinum, and diamond brooch/pendant worn by Mrs. ... Using a scythe A scythe (IPA /sαɪð/, most likely from Old English siðe, sigði) is an agricultural hand tool for mowing and reaping grass or crops. ... A dagger (from Vulgar Latin: daca - a Dacian knife) is a blade weapon (essentially a double-edged knife) used for stabbing, thrusting or as a secondary defense weapon in close combat. ...

Near the door of the wall (in the southwest of the city) a workshop was identified, given that in the place some vestiges of this activity had been found such as the use of fire with high temperatures, nugget and slags of casting of some metals, ores and other indications.

Goldsmithery contributed for Póvoa de Varzim being one of the places of reference for proto-historical archaeology in North-western Iberian Peninsula. Namely, with the finding of some complete jewels: the Earrings of Laundos and the articulated necklace and earrings of Estela. In the proper Cividade, some certifications of works in gold and silver had been collected by Rocha Peixoto. In all the mountain range of Rates, the ancient mining explorations are visible: Castro and Roman ones, given that these mounts possessed essential gold and silver for jewel production. A womans ear with a large silver earring. ... A necklace is an article of clothing or jewelry; which is worn around the neck. ...

In 1904, a mason while constructing a mill in the top of the Mount of São Félix, close to the smaller Castro de Laundos, finds a vase with jewels inside, these jewels had been bought by Rocha Peixoto that took them for the Museum of Porto. The jewels had disclosed the use of a evolved technique, very similar to ones made in the Mediterranean, namely with the use of plates and welds, filigree and granulated. Filigree (formerly written filigrann or filigrane) is a jewel work of a delicate kind made with twisted threads usually of gold and silver. ...

Religion and death rituals

The Castro people had a great number of deities. Religious cults and ceremonies had the objective to harmonize the people with natural forces.

The funerary ritual of the Cividade was probably common to other pre-Roman peoples of the Portuguese territory, but archaeological data are very rarely found in the Castro area, excepting for Cividade de Terroso.

The ritual of the Cividade consisted of the rite of the incineration, depositing the ashes of their dead in small circular-shaped cesspits with stonework adornment in the interior of the houses. Later, the ashes had passed to be deposited in the exterior of the houses, but inside of the family setting.

In 1980, the discovery of a funerary cist, and an entire vase, and fragments of another one without covering, evidences breaking. This vase was very similar to another found in Mount São Félix, this last one with jewels in its interior, assuming that these jewels had the same funerary context.

Commerce

Cividade de Terroso, Rome, Carthage and Carthaginian influence sphere before the First Punic War.

The visits of Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans had as objective the exchange of fabrics and wine for gold and tin, despite the scarcity of terrestrial ways, this was not a problem for Cividade de Terroso that was strategically located close to the sea and the Ave River, thus an extensive commerce existed by Atlantic and fluvial ways. However, a terrestrial one was known, the Silver Way (name on the Roman Era) that started in the south of the peninsula reaching the northeast by inland. Phoenician can mean: The Phoenician ancient civilization The Phoenician alphabet The Phoenician languages This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... This article is about the ancient city-state of Carthage in North Africa. ...

The external commerce, dominated by tin, was complemented with domestic commerce in tribal markets between the different cities and villages of the Castro culture, they exchanged textiles, metals (gold, copper, tin and lead) and other objects including exotic products, such as glass or exotic ceramics, proceeding from contacts with the peoples of the Mediterranean or other areas of the Peninsula.

With the annexation of the Castro region by the Roman Empire, the commerce starts to be one of the main ways for regional economic development, with the Roman merchants organized in associations known as collegia. These associations functioned as true commercial companies who looked for monopoly in commercial relations.

References

• Armando Coelho Ferreira da Silva A Cultura Castreja no Noroeste de Portugal Museu Arqueológico da Citânia de Sanfins, 1986 (Portuguese)
• José Manuel Flores Gomes & Deolinda Carneiro Subtus Montis Terroso - Património Arqueológico no Concelho da Póvoa de Varzim Câmara Municipal da Póvoa de Varzim, 2005 (Portuguese)
• Póvoa de Varzim, Um Pé na Terra, Outro no Mar... (Portuguese)

Online resources

• Roteiro Arqueológico do Eixo Atlântico (Galician / Portuguese)
• Autarcia e Comércio em Bracara Augusta no período Alto-Imperial (Portuguese)
• Análisis Ponderal de Los Torques Castreños (Spanish)