Clara Maass.

Clara Louise Maass (June 28, 1876—August 24, 1901) was an American nurse who died as a result of volunteering for medical experiments to study yellow fever. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... June 28 is the 179th day of the year (180th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 186 days remaining. ... 1876 (MDCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... August 24 is the 236th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (237th in leap years), with 129 days remaining. ... 1901 (MCMI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... This article focuses on the education and regulation of nurses. ...

Early life

Clara Maass was born in East Orange, New Jersey to German immigrants Hedwig and Robert Maass. She was the oldest of 10 children in a devout Lutheran family. Map of East Orange in Essex County East Orange is a city in Essex County, New Jersey, USA. As of the United States 2000 Census, the city had a total population of 69,824. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ...

In 1895 she became one of the first graduates of Newark German Hospital's Christina Trefz Training School for Nurses. By 1898, she had been promoted to head nurse at Newark German Hospital where she was known for her hard work and dedication to her profession.

Army service

In April 1898, during the Spanish-American War, Maass volunteered as a contract nurse for the United States Army (the Army Nurse Corps did not yet exist). She served with the Seventh U. S. Army Corps from October 1, 1898 to February 5, 1899 in Jacksonville, Florida, Savannah, Georgia, and Santiago, Cuba. She was discharged in 1899 but then volunteered again with the Eighth U.S. Army Corps in the Philippines from November 1899 to mid-1900. Combatants United States Spain Commanders Nelson A. Miles William R. Shafter George Dewey Máximo Gómez Emilio Aguinaldo Patricio Montojo Pascual Cervera Casualties 3,289 U.S. dead (only 432 from combat); considerably higher although undetermined Cuban and Filipino casualties Unknown[1] The Spanish-American War was a conflict... The United States Army is one of the armed forces of the United States and has primary responsibility for land-based military operations. ... The United States Army Medical Department (AMEDD) comprises the six medical Special Branches of the Army. ... Motto: Where Florida Begins Location in the state of Florida Coordinates: Country United States State Florida County Duval  - Mayor John Peyton (R) Area    - City  885 sq mi (2,264. ... Coordinates: County Chatham  - Mayor Otis S. Johnson Area    - City 202. ... Santiago de Cuba is the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in eastern Cuba. ...

During her army service she saw few battle injuries, instead caring mostly for soldiers suffering from infectious diseases like typhoid, malaria, dengue and yellow fever. She contracted dengue in Manila and was sent home. For a related disease which is caused by a different bacterium, see Paratyphoid fever. ... Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease that is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. ... Dengue fever (IPA: ) and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) are acute febrile diseases, found in the tropics, with a geographical spread similar to malaria. ... The City of Manila (Filipino: Lungsod ng Maynila), or simply Manila, is the capital of the Philippines and one of the municipalities that comprise Metro Manila. ...

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Yellow fever studies

Shortly after finishing her second assignment with the army, Maass returned to Cuba in October 1900 after being summoned by William Gorgas, who was working with the U.S. Army's Yellow Fever Commission. The commission, headed by Major Walter Reed, was established during the post-war occupation of Cuba in order to investigate yellow fever, which was endemic in Cuba. One of the commission's goals was to determine how the disease was spread: by mosquito bites or by contact with contaminated objects. Major General William Crawford Gorgas (October 3, 1854, in Mobile, Alabama -- July 3, 1920, in London) was a United States physician and 22nd Surgeon General of the U.S. Army (1914-18). ... Major Walter Reed, M.D., (September 13, 1851 - November 23, 1902) was a U.S. Army physician who in 1900 led the team which confirmed the theory (first set forth in 1881 by Cuban doctor/scientist Carlos Finlay) that yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitoes, rather than by direct contact. ... In epidemiology, an infection is said to be endemic in a population when that infection is maintained in the population without the need for external inputs. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A fomite is any inanimate object or substance supposed to be capable of absorbing, retaining, and transporting contagious or infectious organisms (from germs to parasites) from one individual to another. ...

The commission recruited human subjects because they did not know of any animals that could contract yellow fever. In the first recorded instance of informed consent in human experiments, volunteers were told that participation in the studies might cause their deaths. As an incentive, volunteers were paid US$100, which was a large amount at the time, with an additional $100 if the volunteer became ill. Informed consent is a legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon an appreciation and understanding of the facts and implications of an action. ...

In March 1901, Maass volunteered to be bitten by a Culex fasciata mosquito (now called Aedes aegypti) that had been allowed to feed on yellow fever patients. She contracted a mild case of the disease from which she quickly recovered. By this time, the researchers were certain that mosquitoes were the route of transmission, but lacked the scientific evidence to prove it because some volunteers who were bitten remained healthy. Maass continued to volunteer for experiments. joyce This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ...

Death

On August 14, 1901, Maass allowed herself to be bitten by infected mosquitoes for the second time. The researchers were hoping to show that her earlier case of yellow fever was sufficient to immunize her against the disease. Unfortunately, this was not the case. Maass once again became ill with yellow fever on August 18 and died on August 24. Her death roused public sentiment and put an end to yellow fever experiments on humans. In medicine immunization is the process by which an individual is exposed to a material that is designed to prime his or her immune system against that material. ...

Maass was buried in Colon Cemetery in Havana with military honors. Her body was moved to Fairmount Cemetery, Newark, New Jersey, on February 20, 1902. The Pierson Monument Fairmount Cemetery is a 150 acre Victorian cemetery in the West Ward of Newark, New Jersey in the neighborhood of Fairmount. ... Official language(s) None, English de facto Capital Trenton Largest city Newark Area  Ranked 47th  - Total 8,729 sq mi (22,608 km²)  - Width 70 miles (110 km)  - Length 150 miles (240 km)  - % water 14. ...

Tributes

A 13¢ US postage stamp in Maass' honor. The caption reads "She gave her life".

• In 1951, the 50th anniversary of her death, Cuba issued a postage stamp in her honor.
• On June 19, 1952, Newark German Hospital (which had since moved to Belleville, New Jersey) was renamed Clara Maass Memorial Hospital.
• In 1976, the 100th anniversary of her birth, Maass was honored with a 13¢ United States commemorative stamp.
• Also in 1976, the American Nurses Association inducted her into its Nursing Hall of Fame.
• The Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church honors her on August 13 with Florence Nightingale as a "Renewer of Society".

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... A postage stamp is evidence of pre-paying a fee for postal services. ... Map of Belleville Township in Essex County Belleville is a Township in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. ... A two-cent euro coin A United States penny, or 1¢ In currency, the cent is a monetary unit that equals 1/100 of the basic unit of value. ... The American Nurses Association (ANA) is a professional organization to advance and protect the profession of nursing. ... The Lutheran Calendar of Saints is a listing which details the primary annual festivals and events that are celebrated liturgically by the Lutheran Church. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC (12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910), who came to be known as The Lady with the Lamp, was a pioneer of modern nursing, and a noted statistician. ...

External links

• American Nurses Association Hall of Fame

• Clara Maass entry at Find A Grave with photos of her headstone, both before and after vandalism.