Cnidaria Fossil range: Ediacaran - Recent
Sea nettles, Chrysaora quinquecirrha
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Cnidaria Hatschek, 1888
Subphylum/Classes[2]
Anthozoa — corals and sea anemones Medusozoa:[1] Cubozoa — sea wasps or box jellyfish Hydrozoa — hydroids, hydra-like animals Polypodiozoa Scyphozoa — jellyfish Staurozoa — stalked jellyfish Unranked: Myxozoa - parasites

Cnidaria^[3] (pronounced /naɪˈdɛəriə/^[4]) is a phylum containing some 11,000 species of apparently simple animals found exclusively in aquatic, mostly marine, environments. On the other hand, their biochemistry and genetic makeup reveal that even the stationary starlet sea anemone is much more complex than it appears at the first glance.^[5] The Ediacaran[5][6]  â€¢  â€¢  | Neoproterozoic (last æon of the Precambrian) Phanerozoic Axis scale: millions of years ago. ... Image File history File links Sea nettles, Chrysaora quinquecirrha Photo by Dennis Mojado; this image is a cropped version of. ... Binomial name Chrysaora quinquecirrha (Desor, 1848) The stinging sea nettle (Chrysaora quinquecirrha) is a species of jellyfish occurring particularly in Atlantic estuaries. ... Scientific classification redirects here. ... Kingdoms Eukaryotes are organisms with complex cells, in which the genetic material is organized into membrane-bound nuclei. ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... Anthozoa is a class within the phylum Cnidaria that contains the sea anemones and corals. ... Extant Subclasses and Orders Alcyonaria    Alcyonacea    Helioporacea Zoantharia    Antipatharia    Corallimorpharia    Scleractinia    Zoanthidea [1][2]  See Anthozoa for details For other uses, see Coral (disambiguation). ... Families Many, see text. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Orders see text Box jellyfish, also known as sea wasps, are jellyfish-like creatures found in Australia and the Philippines, which can be extremely deadly, with venom in their tentacles. ... Subclasses Anthomedusae Laingiomedusae Leptomedusae Limnomedusae Siphonophorae Actinulidae Narcomedusae Trachymedusae Polypodiozoa Organisms of the Class Hydrozoa belong to the phylum Cnidaria. ... Orders Actinulida Capitata Chondrophora Filifera Hydroida Siphonophora Trachylina Organisms that are in Class Hydrozoa come from the Phylum Cnidaria. ... Species Hydra americana Hydra attenuata (or Hydra vulgaris) Hydra canadensis Hydra carnea Hydra cauliculata Hydra circumcincta Hydra hymanae Hydra littoralis Hydra magnipapillata Hydra minima Hydra oligactis Hydra oregona Hydra pseudoligactis Hydra rutgerensis Hydra utahensis Hydra viridis Hydra viridissima Hydra is a genus of simple, fresh-water animals possessing radial symmetry. ... Binomial name Polypodium hydriforme (Ussov, 1885) Polypodium is a genus of parasitic cnidarians; the only genus in family Polypodiidae. ... This article is about jellyfish, the sea creatures. ... Families Cleistocarpidae Eleutherocarpidae Kyopodidae Tesseranthidae Stauromedusae, or the stalked jellyfishes, is an order of jellyfish within the Cnidaria phylum that are unique in that they do not enter the medusa stage, instead remaining polyps throughout their lives. ... Classes Malacosporea Myxosporea The Myxozoa are a group of microscopic, parasitic animals. ... This article is about a relationship between organisms. ... Phylum (plural: phyla) is a taxon used in the classification of animals, adopted from the Greek phylai the clan-based voting groups in Greek city-states. ... For other uses, see Species (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... Animated map exhibiting the worlds oceanic waters. ... Binomial name Stephenson, 1935 The starlet sea anemone (Nematostella vectensis) is a species of sea anemone that lives along the coast of southeast England and the east and west coasts of the United States. ...

Cnidarians get their name from cnidocytes, which are specialized cells that carry stinging organelles called nematocysts. As for the etymology, the word Cnidaria comes from the Greek word "cnidos", which means "stinging nettle". The corals, which are important reef-builders, belong here, as do the familiar sea anemones, jellyfish, sea pens, sea pansies and sea wasps. The name Coelenterata was formerly applied to the group, but as this name included the Ctenophores, it has been abandoned. Cnidarians are highly evident in the fossil records, having first appeared in the Ediacaran period. Nomarski micrograph of a Ruthenium-red stained nematocyst from Aiptasia pallida, the pale anemone. ... In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is separately enclosed within its own lipid membrane. ... Binomial name L. The stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) is a herbaceous flowering plant, also known in the United States as 7-minute-itch, native to Europe, Asia, northern Africa, and North America, and is the best known member of the nettle genus Urtica. ... Extant Subclasses and Orders Alcyonaria    Alcyonacea    Helioporacea Zoantharia    Antipatharia    Corallimorpharia    Scleractinia    Zoanthidea [1][2]  See Anthozoa for details For other uses, see Coral (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Reef (disambiguation). ... Families Many, see text. ... For other uses, see Jellyfish (disambiguation). ... Families Suborder Sessiliflorae Anthoptilidae Chunellidae Echinoptilidae Funiculinidae Kophobelemnidae Protoptilidae Renillidae Scleroptilidae Stachyptilidae Umbellulidae Veretillidae Suborder Subselliflorae Pennatulidae Pteroeididae Virgulariidae Sea Pens are colonial marine cnidarians belonging to the order Pennatulacea. ... Families Suborder Sessiliflorae Anthoptilidae Chunellidae Echinoptilidae Funiculinidae Kophobelemnidae Protoptilidae Renillidae Scleroptilidae Stachyptilidae Umbellulidae Veretillidae Suborder Subselliflorae Pennatulidae Pteroeididae Virgulariidae Sea pens are colonial marine cnidarians belonging to the order Pennatulacea. ... Orders see text Box jellyfish, also known as sea wasps, are jellyfish-like creatures found in Australia and the Philippines, which can be extremely deadly, with venom in their tentacles. ... Phyla Ctenophora Cnidaria Coelenterata is an obsolete yet common term encompassing two animal phyla, the Ctenophora (comb jellies) and the Cnidaria (coral animals, true jellies, sea anemones, sea pens, and their allies). ... Classes Tentaculata Nuda The phylum Ctenophora (pronounced ), commonly known as Comb Jellies, is a phylum that includes the sea gooseberry (Pleurobrachia pileus) and Venus girdle (Cestum veneris). ... For other uses, see Fossil (disambiguation). ... The Ediacaran[5][6]  â€¢  â€¢  | Neoproterozoic (last æon of the Precambrian) Phanerozoic Axis scale: millions of years ago. ...

The basic body shape of a cnidarian consists of a sac containing a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that functions as both mouth and anus . It has radial symmetry, meaning that whichever way it is cut along its central axis, the resulting halves would always be mirror images of each other. Their movement is coordinated by a decentralized nerve net and simple receptors. Several free-swimming Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess rhopalia, complex sensory structures that can include image-forming eyes with lenses and retinas [1], and a gravity-sensing statolith comparable in function to the otolith of the vertebrate inner ear. Tentacles surrounding the mouth contain nematocysts, specialized stinging cells, which they use to catch prey and defend themselves from predators. The ability to sting is what gives cnidarians their name. Gastrovascular cavity, as the name indicates, functions in both digestion and the transport of nutrients to all parts of an animal body. ... For other uses, see Mouth (disambiguation). ... This article is about the bodily orifice. ... The elaborate patterns on the wings of butterflies are one example of bilateral symmetry. ... For other uses, see Nerve (disambiguation). ... Rhopalia (singular: rhopalium) are small sensory structures of scyphozoan and cubozoan jellyfish; in Aurelia they lie in marginal indententions around the bell and are flanked by rhopalial lappets. ... Statoliths are a specialised form of amyloplasts involved in gravity perception by plants. ... An otolith, (oto-, ear + lithos, a stone), also called statoconium[1] or otoconium is a structure in the saccule or utricle of the inner ear, specifically in the vestibular labyrinth. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Venom. ...

There are four main classes of Cnidaria:

• Class Anthozoa (anemones, corals, etc.)
• Class Scyphozoa (jellyfish)
• Class Cubozoa (box jellies)
• Class Hydrozoa (Obelia, Aequorea, Portuguese Man o' War, etc.)

Traditionally the hydrozoans were considered to be the most primitive, but evidence now suggests the anthozoans were actually the earliest to diverge. Sea anemones, sea fans and corals are in this class. The non-anthozoan classes may be grouped into the subphylum Medusozoa. Under this scheme, Anthozoa is also elevated to a subphylum.^[2] Anthozoa is a class within the phylum Cnidaria that contains the sea anemones and corals. ... This article is about jellyfish, the sea creatures. ... Orders see text Box jellyfish, also known as sea wasps, are jellyfish-like creatures found in Australia and the Philippines, which can be extremely deadly, with venom in their tentacles. ... Subclasses Anthomedusae Laingiomedusae Leptomedusae Limnomedusae Siphonophorae Actinulidae Narcomedusae Trachymedusae Polypodiozoa Organisms of the Class Hydrozoa belong to the phylum Cnidaria. ... Species Obelia dichotoma Obelia geniculata Obelia longissima Obelia bidentata Hydroids (genus Obelia) are from the class Hydrozoa, which consists of mainly marine and some freshwater species and have both the polyp and medusa stages in their life cycle. ... Binomial name Aequorea victoria (Murbach and Shearer, 1902) Aequorea victoria is a luminescent jellyfish found off the west coast of North America. ... This article is about the marine invertebrate. ...

Theoretically, members of Cnidaria have life-cycles that alternate between asexual polyps and sexual, free-swimming forms called medusae. In reality there is a vast variation within the life-cycles of cnidarians. Anatomy of a coral polyp. ... In biology, a medusa (also known as a hydromedusa) is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shortened on its principal axis and broadened, sometimes greatly, in contrast with the hydroid or polyp. ...

Nutrition

Most cnidaria feed on prey that come into contact with their tentacles. These include the larger of the protists, various worms, crabs, other cnidaria and even fish. Some groups such as coral live symbiotically with algae, mostly Dinoflagellata but sometimes Chlorophyta. By absorbing the methane produced by the sea pansy, utilizing sunlight via photosynthesis and releasing the oxygen, the algae produce energy-rich carbohydrates which the cnidarian uses as its main source of food. Typical phyla Chromalveolata Chromista Heterokontophyta Haptophyta Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) Alveolata Dinoflagellata Apicomplexa Ciliophora (ciliates) Cabozoa Excavata Euglenozoa Percolozoa Metamonada Rhizaria Radiolaria Foraminifera Cercozoa Archaeplastida (in part) Rhodophyta (red algae) Glaucophyta (basal archaeplastids) Amoebozoa Choanozoa Many others; classification varies Protists (IPA: (RP); (GenAm)), Greek protiston -a meaning the (most) first of all... For other uses, see Worm (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Crab (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fish (disambiguation). ... Extant Subclasses and Orders Alcyonaria    Alcyonacea    Helioporacea Zoantharia    Antipatharia    Corallimorpharia    Scleractinia    Zoanthidea [1][2]  See Anthozoa for details For other uses, see Coral (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Symbiosis (disambiguation). ... Classes Dinophyceae Noctiluciphyceae Syndiniophyceae The dinoflagellates are a large group of flagellate protists. ... Classes[1] Bryopsidophyceae Chlorophyceae Pedinophyceae Pleurastrophyceae Prasinophyceae Trebouxiophyceae Ulvophyceae Chlorophyta, a division of green algae, includes about 8000 species[2][1] of mostly aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. ... Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Carbohydrates (literally hydrates of carbon) are chemical compounds that act as the primary biological means of storing or consuming energy, other forms being fat and protein. ...

Development of a cnidarian

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (700x1042, 137 KB) Die Entwicklung der Meduse. In: Das Meer by Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1804-1881). ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (700x1042, 137 KB) Die Entwicklung der Meduse. In: Das Meer by Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1804-1881). ...

Reproduction

Cnidarians reproduce both sexually and asexually. They reproduce asexually by budding. The bud will eventually fall off the parent organism and becomes a new polyp. Some cnidarians reproduce sexually by releasing egg and sperm into the water. The eggs will be fertilized by sperm and develop into a larva called planula. The planula will then develop into a new polyp which will produce new medusa called ephyra. Medusa body types of cnidarians have both sexual and asexual stages. The stages alternate. Medusa reproduce sexually to produce polyps, which will grow up and reproduce new medusa.

Cnidaria as fossils

The phylum has existed for a long time, having arguably been among the Ediacaran or Vendian biota of the later Proterozoic eon, about 580 to 540 million years ago, and cnidaria were among the first recognised animal fossils. Our understanding of fossil groups is varied; while those cnidaria that were formed of soft tissue only remain today in very exceptional cases, the fossil record of, for example, corals is very well known due to the lime remains they left behind. The first coral reefs date from the early Ordovician of about 500 million years ago, and their form at the time differed significantly from that of corals today, which, following the mass extinction 240 million years ago at the end of the Permian period, first appeared in the middle of the Triassic period. Dickinsonia costata, an Ediacaran organism of unknown affinity, with a quilted appearance. ... The Proterozoic (IPA: ) is a geological eon representing a period before the first abundant complex life on Earth. ... Artist impression of the Ordovician Sea. ... An extinction event (also extinction-level event, ELE) is a period in time when a large number of species die out. ... The Permian is a geologic period that extends from about 299. ... The Triassic is a geologic period that extends from about 251 to 199 Ma (million years ago). ...

Classification

As mentioned in the introduction, cnidaria were classically grouped together with ctenophora as Coelenterata. In view of current research into cladistics, this group is now considered paraphyletic, i.e. it does not include all the descendants of their common ancestor. Despite the outer similarity of the two taxa, such as their radially symmetric bodies, the ctenophora are more likely to be related to the mirror-symmetrical bilateria than cnidaria. For this reason Coelenterata is considered to be an artificial grouping from a cladistic viewpoint. Classes Tentaculata Nuda The phylum Ctenophora (pronounced ), commonly known as Comb Jellies, is a phylum that includes the sea gooseberry (Pleurobrachia pileus) and Venus girdle (Cestum veneris). ... Phyla Ctenophora Cnidaria Coelenterata is an obsolete yet common term encompassing two animal phyla, the Ctenophora (comb jellies) and the Cnidaria (coral animals, true jellies, sea anemones, sea pens, and their allies). ... It has been suggested that Clade be merged into this article or section. ... A taxon (plural taxa), or taxonomic unit, is a grouping of organisms (named or unnamed). ... Illustration of the different types of symmetry of Life Forms On Earth. ...

Cnidaria are further divided into six main classes: A class is the rank in the scientific classification of organisms in biology below Phylum and above Order. ...

• Class Anthozoa (corals) includes about 6,000 species, including sea anemones and corals such as Scleractinia (stony star corals). The medusa stage is not known among this class.
• Class Scyphozoa (jellyfish) contains about 200 species, which mostly appear as medusae. Conulariids are thought to belong to this class.
• Class Staurozoa (stalked jellyfish) is small sessile jellyfish with a stalk and attach to substrate by the stalk.
• Class Cubozoa (box jellyfish) encompasses about 20 species, which only appear as medusae. Among them are the species Chironex fleckerii and Chiropsalmus quadrigatus, known as sea wasps, which possess a highly potent toxin.
• Class Polypodiozoa contains a single species Polypodium hydriforme Ussow, 1885, a parasitic cnidarian in sturgeon oocyte. Recent research shows relationship with Myxozoa.
• Class Hydrozoa contains about 3,000 species, and is a broad spectrum stretching from the tropical fire corals (Milleporidae) to the hydroids (Sertularia), some of which appear in the North Sea. Hydrozoa often alternate between asexual polyps and sexual medusa body forms.

Among the hydrozoa the order of Siphonophora, which includes the Portuguese Man o' War, deserves special mention. These hydrozoans form colonies that show varying degrees of specialization, so that in extreme cases individuals function essentially as organs of the whole. Anthozoa is a class within the phylum Cnidaria that contains the sea anemones and corals. ... Families Many, see text. ... Families Suborder Astrocoeiina   Acroporidae   Astrocoeniidae   Pocilloporiidae Suborder Caryophylliina   Caryophylliidae Suborder Dendrophylliina   Dendrophylliidae Suborder Faviina   Astrangiidae   Faviidae   Meandrinidae   Mirulinidae   Mussidae   Oculinidae   Pectiniidae   Trachyphyllidae Suborder Fungiina   Agariciidae   Fungiidae   Poritidae   Siderastreidae   Thamnasteriidae Scleractinia, also called Stony star corals, are exclusively marine animals; they are very similar to sea anemones but generate a hard... This article is about jellyfish, the sea creatures. ... Conulariids have been the subject of speculation for a century and a half. ... Families Cleistocarpidae Eleutherocarpidae Kyopodidae Tesseranthidae Stauromedusae, or the stalked jellyfishes, is an order of jellyfish within the Cnidaria phylum that are unique in that they do not enter the medusa stage, instead remaining polyps throughout their lives. ... Orders see text Box jellyfish, also known as sea wasps, are jellyfish-like creatures found in Australia and the Philippines, which can be extremely deadly, with venom in their tentacles. ... Binomial name Polypodium hydriforme (Ussov, 1885) Polypodium is a genus of parasitic cnidarians; the only genus in family Polypodiidae. ... Classes Malacosporea Myxosporea The Myxozoa are a group of microscopic, parasitic animals. ... Subclasses Anthomedusae Laingiomedusae Leptomedusae Limnomedusae Siphonophorae Actinulidae Narcomedusae Trachymedusae Polypodiozoa Organisms of the Class Hydrozoa belong to the phylum Cnidaria. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Orders Actinulida Capitata Chondrophora Filifera Hydroida Siphonophora Trachylina Organisms that are in Class Hydrozoa come from the Phylum Cnidaria. ... Families See text. ... This article is about the marine invertebrate. ...

A small group of microscopic parasites, the Myxozoa, have been considered to be extremely reduced cnidarians. These attach themselves to their hosts by polar filaments similar to the stinging threads of cnidocysts. Their exact placement within the phylum is uncertain, however, and new studies suggest they may have developed from some other group of animals. Usually they are placed in their own phylum. A parasite is an organism that spends a significant portion of its life in or on the living tissue of a host organism and which causes harm to the host without immediately killing it. ... Classes Malacosporea Myxosporea The Myxozoa are a group of microscopic, parasitic animals. ...

Finally, the extinct Conularids may or may not be members of the Cnidaria. Conularids is a fossile group, most likely Cnidarians ranging from Cambrian (possibly late Vendian) to the Triassic. ...

Obsolete names for groups of cnidarians include Acalephae, which contained Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa, based on the shared character of stinging cells; however this character is no longer thought to be primitive.

Cnidaria and man

As already mentioned, a large number of the islands humans inhabit today can be traced back to the carcasses of dead cnidaria. The limestone they left behind is often extracted and commercially exploited, particularly in the manufacture of cement. Jewelry has been made from particularly colourful coral since prehistoric times. For other uses, see Cement (disambiguation). ...

Some species of cnidaria are edible, and used in especially Eastern Asian cuisine. Cuisine (from French cuisine, cooking; culinary art; kitchen; ultimately from Latin coquere, to cook) is a specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture. ...

On the other hand, humans are regularly killed or permanently disabled by the cnidarian's highly poisonous neurotoxin, particularly on the north coast of the Australian continent. The North Sea is also inhabited by cnidaria that can cause acutely painful skin wounds. A world map showing the continent of Australia This article deals with the continent. ...

Conversely, the spread of human tourism often has a negative effect on coral. The global death of coral shows that in reef biology corals are a key organism, whose death often precedes the extinction of the entire ecosystem. The introduction of nitrate-heavy effluent and cyanide fishing are only some of the human influences that in a short space of time can cause the destruction of wide-ranging habitats. Another danger for coral is the rising water temperatures caused by climate change: if they rise too high, the corals lose the algae with which they live in symbiosis and perish. Cyanide fishing is an illegal form of fishing common in South East Asia, which usually uses the chemical compound sodium cyanide - a close relation of potassium cyanide. ...

Notes and references

Notes

1. ^ Classes in Medusozoa based on The Taxonomicon - Taxon: Subphylum Medusozoa - Retrieved July 10, 2007
2. ^ ^{a b} Subphyla Anthozoa and Medusozoa based on The Taxonomicon - Taxon: Phylum Cnidaria - Retrieved July 10, 2007
3. ^ This article is partially based on a translation of the corresponding Roman-language Wikipedia article, retrieved on 27 April 2006.
4. ^ Silent c - from New Latin cnida, from Greek κνιδη "nettle", "sea anemone" (Dalby, 2003: 296).
5. ^ N.H. Putnam, et al. (Jul 2007). "Sea anemone genome reveals ancestral eumetazoan gene repertoire and genomic organization". Science 317 (5834): 86-94. doi:10.1126/science.1139158. 

is the 191st day of the year (192nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 191st day of the year (192nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... In an alphabetic writing system, a silent letter is a letter that, in a particular word, does not correspond to any sound in the words pronunciation. ... New Latin (or Neo-Latin) is a post-medieval version of Latin, now used primarily in International Scientific Vocabulary cladistics and systematics. ... Nettles redirects here. ... Families Many, see text. ... Science is the academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the worlds most prestigious scientific journals. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ...

References

• Anderson, D.T. (2001). Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2nd edition [chapter 3, p.31]. ISBN 0-19-551368-1.
• Arai, M.N. (1997). A Functional Biology of Scyphozoa. London: Chapman & Hall [p.316]. ISBN 0-412-45110-7.
• Ax, P. (1999). Das System der Metazoa I. Ein Lehrbuch der phylogenetischen Systematik. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. ISBN 3-437-30803-3.
• Barnes, R.S.K., P. Calow, P. J. W. Olive, D. W. Golding & J. I. Spicer (2001). The invertebrates - a synthesis. Oxford: Blackwell. 3rd edition [chapter 3.4.2, p.54]. ISBN 0-632-04761-5.
• Brusca, R.C., G.J. Brusca (2003). Invertebrates. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. 2nd edition [chapter 8, p.219]. ISBN 0-87893-097-3.
• Dalby, A. (2003). Food in the Ancient World: from A to Z. London: Routledge.
• Moore, J.(2001). An Introduction to the Invertebrates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [chapter 4, p.30]. ISBN 0-521-77914-6.
• Ruppert, E.E., R.S. Fox & R.P. Barnes (2004). Invertebrate Zoology - a Functional Evolutionary Approach. Belmont: Brooks-Cole [chapter 7, p.111]. ISBN 0-03-025982-7.
• Schäfer, W. (1997). Cnidaria, Nesseltiere. In Rieger, W. (ed.) Spezielle Zoologie. Teil 1. Einzeller und Wirbellose Tiere. Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. Spektrum Akademischer Verl., Heidelberg, 2004. ISBN 3-8274-1482-2.
• Werner, B. 4. Stamm Cnidaria. In: V. Gruner (ed.) Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie. Begr. von Kaestner. 2 Bde. Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena. 1954, 1980, 1984, Spektrum Akad. Verl., Heidelberg-Berlin, 1993. 5th edition. ISBN 3-334-60474-8.

Andrew Dalby (born Liverpool, 1947) is an English linguist, translator and historian who most often writes about food history. ...

Journal articles

• D. Bridge, B. Schierwater, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle R, L. W. Buss: Mitochondrial DNA structure and the molecular phylogeny of recent cnidaria classes. in: Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Philadelphia USA 89.1992, p. 8750. ISSN 0097-3157
• D. Bridge, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle, L. W. Buss: Class-level relationships in the phylum Cnidaria - Molecular and morphological evidence. in: Molecular biology and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford 12.1995, p. 679. ISSN 0737-4038
• D. G. Fautin: Reproduction of Cnidaria. in: Canadian Journal of Zoology. Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1735. (PDF, online) ISSN 0008-4301
• G. O. Mackie: What's new in cnidarian biology? in: Canadian Journal of Zoology. Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1649. (PDF, online) ISSN 0008-4301
• P. Schuchert: Phylogenetic analysis of the Cnidaria. in: Zeitschrift für zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung. Paray, Hamburg-Berlin 31.1993, p. 161. ISSN 0044-3808
• G. Kass-Simon, A. A. Scappaticci Jr.: The behavioral and developmental physiology of nematocysts. in: Canadian Journal of Zoology. Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p.1772. (PDF, online) ISSN 0044-3808
• A. C. Marques, A. G. Collins (2004): Cladistic analysis of Medusozoa and cnidarian evolution. Invertebrate Biology, 123 (1), 23-42.
• J. Zrzavý (2001): The interrelationships of metazoan parasites: a review of phylum-and higher-level hypotheses from recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Folia Parasitologica, 48 (2), 81-103.

ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ...

External links

Wikispecies has information related to:

Cnidaria

Wikibooks' Dichotomous Key has more about this subject:

Cnidaria

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Cnidaria

• A Cnidaria homepage maintained by University of California, Irvine
• Cnidaria page at Tree of Life
• Fossil Gallery: Cnidarians
• Wonders of the Seas: Cnidarians
• The Hydrozoa Directory
• Hexacorallians of the World

Image File history File links Wikispecies-logo. ... Wikispecies is a wiki-based online project supported by the Wikimedia Foundation that aims to create a comprehensive free content catalogue of all species (including animalia, plantae, fungi, bacteria, archaea, and protista). ... Image File history File links Wikibooks-logo-en. ...