Coca eradication is a controversial strategy strongly promoted by the United States government as part of its "War on Drugs" to eliminate the cultivation of coca, a plant whose leaves are not only traditionally used by indigenous cultures but also, in modern society, in the manufacture of cocaine. This prohibitionist strategy is being pursued in the coca-growing regions of Colombia (Plan Colombia), Peru, and Bolivia, where it is highly controversial because of its environmental and its socioeconomic impact. Furthermore, indigenous cultures living in the Altiplano, such as the Aymaras, use the coca leaf (which they dub the "millenary leaf") in many of their cultural traditions, notably for its medicinal qualities in alleviating the feeling of hunger, fatigue and headaches symptomatic of altitude sicknesses. The growers of coca are named Cocaleros and part of the coca production for traditional use is legal in Peru and Bolivia. Massive mark-ups for drugs, UK Govt report Prevalance of drug use 1991-2002 The War on Drugs is an initiative undertaken by the United States with the assistance of participating countries, which is ostensibly intended to combat the illegal drug trade —to curb supply and diminish demand for certain... Binomial name Erythroxylum coca Lam. ... A Hupa man. ... Cocaine (or crack in its freebase form) is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... For the general concept, see Prohibitionism. ... Plan Colombia is a controversial initiative aimed at resolving the ongoing, fifty-year civil war in Colombia. ... The Altiplano (Spanish for high plain), where the Andes are at their widest, is the most extensive area of high plateau on earth outside of Tibet. ... The Aymara are a native ethnic group in the Andes region of South America; about 2. ... Altitude sickness, also known as acute mountain sickness (AMS) or altitude illness is a pathological condition that is caused by acute exposure to high altitudes. ... Cocalero is a term that refers to the coca leaf growers of Peru and Bolivia. ...

Coca eradication in Bolivia

Coca eradiction in Bolivia Source: http://www. ...

Environmental impact

Plots denuded of coca plants by mechanical means (burning or cutting) or chemical herbicides, such as Monsanto's Roundup, are abandoned and cause serious problems with erosion in seasonal rains. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Monsanto Company (NYSE: MON) is a multinational agricultural biotechnology corporation. ... Roundup is the brand name of a systemic, broad-spectrum herbicide produced by the U.S. life sciences giant Monsanto. ... Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. For erosion as understood by materials science, see Erosion (materials science) For erosion as an English analogy, see Erosion (figurative) For erosion as an operation of Mathematical morphology, see Erosion (morphology) Erosion is the displacement of solids (soil...

In addition, the U.S. has also been involved in the application of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum to wipe out coca^{[citation needed]}. In 2000, the Congress of the United States approved use of Fusarium as a biological control agent to kill coca crops in Colombia (and another fungus to kill opium poppies in Afghanistan), but these plans were canceled by then-President Clinton, who was concerned that the unilateral use of a biological agent would be perceived by the rest of the world as biological warfare. The Andean nations have since banned its use throughout the region. (The use of biological agents to kill crops may be illegal under the Biological Weapons Convention of 1975.) Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Glomeromycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota Deuteromycota Fungi (singular fungus) are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms. ... Binomial name Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl. ... Congress in Joint Session. ... Opium is a narcotic produced from opium poppies. ... William Jefferson Bill Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III[1] on August 19, 1946) was the 42nd President of the United States, serving from 1993 to 2001. ... For the use of biological agents by terrorists, see bioterrorism. ... Biological Weapons Convention Opened for signature April 10, 1972 at Moscow, Washington and London Entered into force March 26, 1975 Conditions for entry into force ??? Parties ??? The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (usually referred to...

On June 25, 2003, the Superior Administrative Court of the Colombian department of Cundinamarca ordered a stop to the spraying of glyphosate herbicides until the government complies with the environmental management plan for the eradication program. It also mandated a series of studies to protect public health and the environment.[1] The Colombian State Council, the country's maximum administrative authority, later overruled the court's decision to stop fumigations. [2] Download high resolution version (456x633, 128 KB)Map of coca cultivation in Colombia. ... June 25 is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 189 days remaining. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Cundinamarca is a department of Colombia, one of the original nine states of the United States of Colombia. Most of Cundinamarca is in the Eastern Cordillera, just south of Boyacá, bordered by the Magdalena River on the west, reaching down into the Amazon River basin on the east, and bordering... Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine, C3H8NO5P) is a non-selective herbicide to kill weeds, especially perennials. ...

Socioeconomic impact

In the sierra of Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina, coca has been consumed (by chewing and brewing in infusion) for thousands of years as a stimulant and cure for altitude sickness; it also has symbolic value. The sale and consumption of coca (but not pure cocaine) is legal and legitimate in these countries. Look up sierra in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... An infusion is a beverage made by steeping a flavoring substance in hot or boiling water. ... Altitude sickness, also known as acute mountain sickness (AMS) or altitude illness is a pathological condition that is caused by acute exposure to high altitudes. ...

With the growth of the Colombian drug cartels in the 1980s, coca leaf became a valuable agricultural commodity, particularly in Peru and Bolivia, where the quality of coca is higher than in Colombia. To supply the foreign markets, the cartels expanded the cultivation to areas where coca was not a traditional crop. Many poor campesinos, driven from the central highlands by lack of land or loss of jobs, migrated to the lowlands and valleys of the eastern Andes, where they turned to the cultivation of coca. Retail selling Street selling is the bottom of the chain and can be accomplished through purchasing from prostitutes, through cloaked retail stores or refuse houses for users in the act located in red-light districts which often also deal in paraphernalia, dealers marketing merriment at night clubs and other events... Campesino may refer to A simple farmer is referred to as a campesino in Spanish. ... The Andes between Chile and Argentina Planes view of the Andes, Peru. ...

To counter this development, the U.S. government, through its foreign aid agency USAID, has promoted a policy of crop substitution, whereby coca cultivation is replaced by coffee, banana, pineapple, palm heart, and other crops suitable for a tropical climate. Prices for these products are extremely low, however; moreover, many remote coca-growing areas lack the infrastructure to get such perishable products to market on time. The price of coca, on the other hand, has remained high; and, when dried, coca stores well and is easily transportable. To date, virtually all the crop substitution programs implemented in Peru and Bolivia have failed, primarily because the campesinos are not guaranteed an adequate price for alternative products. The United States Agency for International Development (or USAID) is the US government organization responsible for most non-military foreign aid. ... A cup of coffee Workers sorting and pulping coffee beans in Guatemala Coffee is a widely consumed beverage prepared from the roasted seeds—commonly referred to as beans—of the coffee plant. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Heart of palm, also called palm heart, palmito, or swamp cabbage, is a vegetable harvested from the inner core and growing bud of certain palm trees (notably the coconut (Cocos nucifera), açaí (Euterpe edulis), sabal (Sabal spp. ...

The Chapare and Yungas coca-growing zones in Bolivia. Source: US General Accountability Office

This map from the U.S. General Accounting Office indicates the Chapare and Yungas coca-growing zones in Bolivia. ...

Geopolitical issues

Given the above-mentioned considerations, many critics of coca eradication believe the fundamental goal of the U.S. government is to constrict the flow of income to the Colombian Marxist rebel movement, FARC, which is heavily funded by the illegal drug trade, rather than combating drugs per se. Few if any such critics have anything favorable to say about the illicit drug trade, but they point out that under the current coca eradication policies, poor campesinos bear the brunt of efforts to combat it, while North American and European chemical companies (which supply chemicals needed in the manufacture of cocaine) and banks (which annually launder hundreds of billions of dollars in illegal revenues) continue to profit from the trade. Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... The Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia–Ejército del Pueblo or FARC-EP (Spanish for Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia–Peoples Army) is Colombias oldest and largest guerrilla group, established in 1964-1966 as the military wing of the Colombian Communist Party. ... Money laundering is the practice of engaging in financial transactions in order to conceal the identity, source and destination of the money in question. ...

Article 26 of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, a treaty promulgated with U.S. backing in 1961, states that "The Parties shall so far as possible enforce the uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild. They shall destroy the coca bushes if illegally cultivated." Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs Opened for signature March 30, 1961 at New York Entered into force December 13, 1964[1] Conditions for entry into force 40 ratifications Parties 180[2] The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is the international treaty against illicit drug manufacture and trafficking that forms the... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ...

The US-based Drug Enforcement Administration, along with local governments, has frequently clashed with cocaleros in attempts to eradicate coca across the Andes. This map shows the Chapare region in Bolivia, which has historically been heavily targeted for coca eradication. Human rights NGOs such as Human Rights Watch have accused the US of human rights abuses in the "coca war", including the use of paramilitary death squads against cocaleros [3]. Since 1973, the DEA has enforced the drug laws in the United States. ... Cocalero is a term that refers to the coca leaf growers of Peru and Bolivia. ... Chapare, also called The Chapare, is a rural province in the northern region of the Cochabamba Department in central Bolivia. ... Human rights are rights which some hold to be inalienable and belonging to all humans. ... NGO is an abbreviation or code for: Non-governmental organization Nagoya Airport (IATA code) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Human Rights Watch Banner Human Rights Watch is a United States-based international non-government organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. ... A human rights abuse is abuse of people in a way that violates any fundamental human rights. ... A death squad is an extra-judicial group whose members execute or assassinate persons they believe to be politically unreliable or undesirable. ...

Results

In November 2003, the US Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) claimed the area planted with coca in Peru and Bolivia combined fell by 35 km² in the year up to June, which would suggest that a crop eradication program in neighboring Colombia was not driving production over the borders. According to its estimates, the area cultivated with coca in Bolivia rose from 244 km² in 2002 to 284.5 km² in June 2003, but this increase was more than offset in Peru, where the area fell from 366 km² to 311.5 km². The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), a component of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, was established in 1988 by the Anti-Drug Abuse Act. ...

However, the U.S. figures were very different from preliminary estimates in September 2003 by the head of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime in Colombia, which indicated that output in Peru and Bolivia may have risen by as much 21 %, or 150 km², so far this year. The White House office said its estimate was based on sampling from high resolution satellite imagery. The United Nations used a different technique and had not yet put out any formal estimate for 2003. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is a United Nations agency which was founded in 1997 as the Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention with the intent to fight drugs and crime on an international level. ...

At the start of 2003, there were 1,740 km² of coca in worldwide cultivation, and Colombia represented more than 60% of that total. Critics of the Colombian eradication program had predicted that it would lead to higher coca production in Peru and Bolivia. [4]

However, a March 2005 report by the ONDCP indicated that despite record aerial spraying of over 1,300 km² of coca in Colombia in 2004, the total area under coca cultivation remained "statistically unchanged" at 1,140 km². In response to the report, the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA), an NGO that monitors the impact of US foreign policy in Latin America, observed that the aerial spraying strategy appeared to have hit its limits. According to WOLA, the new ONDCP data suggested a continued "balloon effect" as aggressive spraying in some areas has not deterred new cultivation elsewhere. Official estimates coca cultivation in Peru for 2005 have yet to be released, but the State Department’s own reporting suggests that cultivation in Peru has increased. "The stable cultivation in 2004 throws into doubt US officials’ predictions of a major impact on US drug prices and purity," commented John Walsh, WOLA Senior Associate for Drug Policy. President Álvaro Uribe has however vowed to press ahead with U.S.-financed fumigation of coca crops. [5] http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-4907643,00.html The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), a component of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, was established in 1988 by the Anti-Drug Abuse Act. ... The Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA) is a American non-governmental organization (NGO) whose stated goal is to monitor the impact of US foreign policy on human rights, democracy and equitable development in Latin America. ... The term non-governmental organization (NGO) is used in a variety of ways all over the world and, depending on the context in which it is used, can refer to many different types of organizations. ... John Walsh (born December 26, 1945 in Auburn, New York) is the host of the TV show Americas Most Wanted. ... Álvaro Uribe Vélez (born July 4, 1952) is the 43rd President of Colombia, first term 2002-2006, second term 2006-2010. ...

In Bolivia, there has been a decrease in clashes since 2004, when Evo Morales and former President Carlos Mesa struck a deal allowing the Chapare region to legally grow a limited amount of coca, in addition to the already legal Yungas region [6]. Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26, 1959 in Orinoca, Oruro), popularly known as Evo (IPA: ), is the President of Bolivia, and has claimed to be the countrys first indigenous head of state since the Spanish Conquest over 470 years ago. ... Carlos Diego Mesa Gisbert (born August 12, 1953) was the President of Bolivia from October 17, 2003 until his resignation on June 6, 2005. ... Chapare, also called The Chapare, is a rural province in the northern region of the Cochabamba Department in central Bolivia. ... The Yungas is an area in the eastern piedmont of the Andes Mountains, primarily in Bolivia. ...

In the year of 2006 the Colombian government had destroyed around 73,000 hectares beating all records in coca plants destruction. The Colombian government now plans to destroy around 50,000 hectares of coca plants in 2007 and so there will be only around 20,000 hectares left which will be destroyed in the following years [7].

Quotes

The U.S. has supplied tens of thousands of gallons of Roundup to the Colombian government for use in aerial fumigation of coca crops. We have been using a fleet of crop dusters to dump unprecedented amounts of high-potency glyphosate over hundreds of thousands of acres in one of the most delicate and bio-diverse ecosystems in the world. This futile effort has done little to reduce the availability of cocaine on our streets, but now we are learning that a possible side-effect of this campaign could be the unleashing of a Fusarium epidemic in the Amazon basin. The drug war has tried in vain to keep cocaine out of people's noses, but could result instead in scorching the lungs of the earth. —Sanho Tree, the director of the Institute for Policy Studies Drug Policy Project

In La Hormiga, a small city in the Putumayo region, we viewed the effects of glyphosate on food crops. The fumigations had killed subsistence crops such as yucca, corn, and banana, while adjacent coca fields not only survived, but flourished. Even the rubber trees of a state-sponsored alternative crop program were not spared. After five years of nurturing, the trees, along with multiple food crops, were destroyed by the fumigations. Unlike most vegetation in this region, the coca plant is quite resilient. Like a weed, it is able to grow under even the most extreme conditions. [8] Motto: Capital Mocoa Governor Area 24,885 km² Population  - Total (2003)  - Density   378,483 15 people/km² Adjective Putumayo is a department of Colombia. ... Yuca or Yuka has been used as a semi despective term reffering to Metal and Rock music derivations and their followers (called Yuqueros). The term is used in Latin American countrys, thought most popularly in Venezuela. ... Corn redirects here. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Latex being collected from a wounded rubber tree The Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is a tree belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. ...

See also

• Evo Morales, Bolivian president and former cocalero activist
• Chapare Province, a historically targeted region of coca eradication in Bolivia
• Plan Colombia

Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26, 1959 in Orinoca, Oruro), popularly known as Evo (IPA: ), is the President of Bolivia, and has claimed to be the countrys first indigenous head of state since the Spanish Conquest over 470 years ago. ... Chapare, also called The Chapare, is a rural province in the northern region of Cochabamba Department in central Bolivia. ... Plan Colombia is a controversial initiative aimed at resolving the ongoing, fifty-year civil war in Colombia. ...

External links

• Successful coca eradication results in Colombia
• Project Sunshine Anti-biowarfare activists
• Narco News Drug war reporting
• Chemical and Biological War on Drugs Transnational Institute (TNI) website
• Vicious Circle: The Chemical and Biological 'War on Drugs' report by the Transnational Institute (TNI), March 2001
• Coca or Death? Cocalero Movements in Peru and Bolivia Transnational Institute (TNI), Drugs & Conflict Debate Papers 10, April 2004
• U.S. Accused of Creating Coca Blight, from the San Francisco Chronicle, 1999
• [9]CIA and the drugs
• ecolombia.org: No a la privatización y fumigación de los Parques Nacionales Online petition against privatisation of Colombias National Parks in an effort to legalise and re-instate large scale fumigation
• Exhibition of Children's Drawings on Fumigation DrugSTRAT