Mars

Mars is the focus of much speculation and serious study about possible human colonization. Its surface conditions and the likely availability of water make it arguably the most hospitable of the planets in this solar system, other than Earth. The Moon has been proposed as the first location for human colonization, but unlike Earth's moon, Mars has the potential capacity to host human and other organic life. With an environment suitable for colonization, and potential for alteration into a stable ecosystem in the far future, Mars is considered by most scientists, including Stephen Hawking,^[1] as the ideal planet for future colonization and renewal of life. The colonization of Mars is a thought-provoking subject that captures the imagination of many people in science and science-fiction. The project of colonizing Mars provides a useful thought experiment for contemplating the future of humanity. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1023x1023, 585 KB) Saved at maximum quality JPEG from the original TIFF file. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1023x1023, 585 KB) Saved at maximum quality JPEG from the original TIFF file. ... This article is about the planet. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... This article is about Earths moon. ... Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA, (born 8 January 1942) is a British theoretical physicist. ...

Getting there

Mars requires less energy per unit mass (delta V) to reach from Earth than any planet except Venus. Using a Hohmann transfer orbit, a trip to Mars requires approximately nine months in space. Modified transfer trajectories that cut the travel time down to seven or six months in space are possible with incrementally higher amounts of energy and fuel compared to a Hohmann transfer orbit, and are in standard use for robotic Mars missions. Shortening the travel time below about six months requires higher delta-v and an exponentially increasing amount of fuel, and is not feasible with chemical rockets, but could become feasible with advanced propulsion technologies not in current use, such as VASIMR^[2], and nuclear rockets, the latter of which could potentially cut the trip time down to about two weeks.^[3] In general physics, delta-v is simply the change in velocity. ... This article is about the planet. ... In astronautics and aerospace engineering, the Hohmann transfer orbit is an orbital maneuver that, under standard assumption, moves a spacecraft from one circular orbit to another using two engine impulses. ... General In general physics delta-v is simply the change in velocity. ... A remote camera captures a close_up view of a Space Shuttle Main Engine during a test firing at the John C. Stennis Space Center in Hancock County, Mississippi Spacecraft propulsion is used to change the velocity of spacecraft and artificial satellites, or in short, to provide delta_v. ... VASIMR test bed Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rockets or VASIMRs as the name is commonly abbreviated is a hypothetical form of spacecraft propulsion that uses radio waves and magnetic fields to accelerate a propellant. ... A nuclear missile is a type of: missile nuclear weapon It could also refer to a missile with some form of nuclear propulsion, such as the Project Pluto cruise missile. ...

Relative similarity to Earth

While Earth is most like its inner neighbor Venus in bulk composition, Mars' similarities to Earth are arguably more compelling when considering colonization. These include: Artists conception of a space habitat called the Stanford torus, by Don Davis Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, is the hypothetical permanent autonomous (self-sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth. ... The Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Artists conception of a space habitat called the Stanford torus, by Don Davis Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, is the hypothetical permanent autonomous (self-sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth. ... Saturns moon Titan in natural color. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Freeman Dyson has proposed that Trans-Neptunian Objects, rather than planets, are the major potential habitat of life in space. ... Neighbourhood is also a term in topology. ... This article is about the planet. ... This article is about the planet. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ...

• The Martian day (or sol) is very close to Earth's. A Mars solar day is 24 hours 39 minutes 35.244 seconds. (See timekeeping on Mars.)

• Mars has a surface area that is 28.4% of Earth's, only slightly less than the amount of dry land on Earth (which is 29.2% of Earth's surface). Mars has half the radius of Earth and only one-tenth the mass. This means that it is less volumous and less dense than Earth.

• Mars has an axial tilt of 25.19°, compared with Earth's 23.44°. As a result, Mars has seasons much like Earth, though they last nearly twice as long because the Martian year is about 1.88 Earth years. The Martian north pole currently points at Cygnus, not Ursa Minor.

• Mars has an atmosphere. While very thin (about 0.7% of Earth's atmosphere), it provides some protection from solar and cosmic radiation and has been used successfully for aerobraking of spacecraft.

• Recent observations by NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers and ESA's Mars Express confirm the presence of water on Mars. Mars appears to have significant quantities of all the elements necessary to support Terran-based life. [1]

Solar time is based on the idea that, when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky, it is noon. ... Various schemes have been used or proposed to keep track of time and date on the planet Mars independently of Earth time and calendars. ... In astronomy, axial tilt is the inclination angle of a planets rotational axis in relation to a perpendicular to its orbital plane. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Cygnus (IPA: , Latin: ) is a northern constellation. ... Block quote :See also Ursa Minor Alpha a place in The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy. ... Air redirects here. ... Solar irradiance spectrum at top of atmosphere. ... Cosmic rays can loosely be defined as energetic particles originating outside of the Earth. ... An artists conception of a spacecraft aerobraking Aerobraking is a technique used by spacecraft in which it uses drag within a planetary atmosphere to reduce its velocity relative to the planet. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... Artists Concept of Rover on Mars (credit: Maas Digital LLC) Marvin the Martian, Spirit rover Mission patch Duck Dodgers, Opportunity rover Mission patch NASAs Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of two rovers â€” Spirit... This article is about the European Space Agency. ... Concept model of the Mars Express spacecraft Main Engine Thrust for braking manouevre on Venus Express. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... The periodic table of the chemical elements A chemical element, or element, is a type of atom that is distinguished by its atomic number; that is, by the number of protons in its nucleus. ...

Differences from Earth

• The surface gravity on Mars is only a little more than one third that of Earth's. It is not known if this level is high enough to prevent the health problems associated with weightlessness.

• Mars is much colder than Earth, with a mean surface temperature of -63°C and a low of -140°C.

• There are no standing bodies of liquid water on the surface of Mars.

• Because Mars is farther from the Sun, the amount of solar energy reaching the upper atmosphere (the solar constant) is only about half of what reaches the Earth's upper atmosphere or the Moon's surface. However, the solar energy that reaches the surface of Mars is not impeded by a thick atmosphere like on Earth, so that solar energy at the surface of Earth or Mars is largely the same.

• Mars' orbit is more eccentric than Earth's, exacerbating temperature and solar constant variations.

• The atmosphere on Mars, in its current condition, is too low for humans to survive without pressure suits. Since terraforming can not be expected as a near-term solution, habitable structures on Mars would need to be constructed with pressure vessels similar to spacecraft, capable of containing a pressure between a third and a whole bar.

• The Martian atmosphere consists mainly of carbon dioxide. Because of this, even with the reduced atmospheric pressure, the partial pressure of CO₂ at the surface of Mars is some 52 times higher than on Earth, possibly allowing Mars to support some plant life.

• Mars has a very weak magnetosphere, so it deflects solar winds poorly.

The surface gravity of a Killing horizon is the acceleration, as exerted at infinity, needed to keep an object at the horizon. ... Zero gravity redirects here. ... The degree Celsius (°C) is a unit of temperature named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who first proposed it in 1742. ... Sol redirects here. ... Solar irradiance spectrum at top of atmosphere. ... This article is about Earths moon. ... In astrodynamics, under standard assumptions any orbit must be of conic section shape. ... Artists conception of the process of terraforming Mars Since the origin of the idea of terraforming, or changing a planets environment to produce a world that is habitable by humans, one of the primary subjects of study for potential terraforming has been the planet Mars. ... Steel Pressure Vessel A pressure vessel is a closed, rigid container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure different from the ambient pressure. ... Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: ) is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... In a mixture of ideal gases, each gas has a partial pressure which is the pressure which the gas would have if it alone occupied the volume. ... A magnetosphere is the region around an astronomical object in which phenomena are dominated or organized by its magnetic field. ... The plasma in the solar wind meeting the heliopause The solar wind is a stream of charged particles (i. ...

Habitability

Conditions on the surface of Mars are much closer to habitability than the surface of any other planet or moon, as seen by the extremely hot and cold temperatures on Mercury, the furnace-hot surface of Venus, or the cryogenic cold of the outer planets and their moons. Only the cloud tops of Venus are closer in terms of habitability to Earth than Mars is.^[4] There are natural settings on Earth where humans have explored that match most conditions on Mars. The highest altitude reached by a manned balloon ascent, a record set in May, 1961, was 34,668 meters (113,740 feet). [2] The pressure at that altitude is about the same as on the surface of Mars. [3] Extreme cold in the Arctic and Antarctic match all but the most extreme temperatures on Mars. This article is about the planet. ... (*min temperature refers to cloud tops only) Atmospheric characteristics Atmospheric pressure 9. ... Cryogenics is the study of very low temperatures or the production of the same, and is often confused with cryobiology, the study of the effect of low temperatures on organisms, or the study of cryopreservation. ... This article is about the Solar System. ... High altitude balloons are balloons, usually filled with helium, that are released into the upper atmosphere, generally reaching between 60,000 and 120,000 feet. ... Greek ἀνταρκτικός, opposite the arctic) is a continent surrounding the Earths South Pole. ...

On March 21, 2007, in remarks at JPL's High-Tech Conference for Small Business, NASA Deputy Administrator Shana Dale said, "We also hope to discover if Mars can provide a second home for humans – an extension of our civilization – 40 million miles from Earth."^[5] is the 80th day of the year (81st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ...

Terraforming of Mars

An artist's conception of a terraformed Mars

Main article: Terraforming of Mars

Some groups have speculated that Mars might one day be transformed so as to allow a wide variety of living things, including humans, to survive unaided on Mars' surface.^[6] The practicality of terraforming is still unclear. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 600 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (4450 × 4450 pixel, file size: 6. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 600 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (4450 × 4450 pixel, file size: 6. ... Artists conception of a terraformed Mars in four stages of development. ... Artists conception of the process of terraforming Mars Since the origin of the idea of terraforming, or changing a planets environment to produce a world that is habitable by humans, one of the primary subjects of study for potential terraforming has been the planet Mars. ... Artists conception of a terraformed Mars in four stages of development. ...

Radiation

Mars has no global geomagnetic field comparable to Earth's. Combined with a thin atmosphere, this permits a significant amount of ionizing radiation to reach the Martian surface. The Mars Odyssey spacecraft carried an instrument, the Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE), to measure the dangers to humans. MARIE found that radiation levels in orbit above Mars are 2.5 times higher than at the International Space Station. Average doses were about 22 millirads per day (220 micrograys per day or 0.8 gray per year).^{[citation needed]} A three year exposure to such levels would be close to the safety limits currently adopted by NASA. Levels at the Martian surface would be somewhat lower and might vary significantly at different locations depending on altitude and local magnetic fields. The cause of Earths magnetic field (the surface magnetic field) is not known for certain, but is possibly explained by dynamo theory. ... Radiation hazard symbol. ... 2001 Mars Odyssey is a robotic spacecraft orbiting the planet Mars. ... MARIE, designed to measure radiation, started malfunctioning shortly after a series of strong solar flares occurred in Fall of 2003 The Martian Radiation Experiment, or MARIE was designed to measure the radiation environment of Mars using an energetic particle spectrometer. ... ISS redirects here. ... The rad is a unit of radiation dose, with symbol rad. ... The gray (symbol: Gy) is the SI unit of absorbed dose. ...

Occasional solar proton events (SPEs) produce much higher doses. Astronauts on Mars could be warned of SPEs by sensors closer to the Sun and presumably take shelter during these events. Some SPEs were observed by MARIE that were not seen by sensors near Earth due to the fact SPEs are directional. This would imply that a network of spacecraft in orbit around the Sun might be needed to ensure all SPEs threatening Mars were detected.^{[citation needed]} A Solar Proton Event occurs when high-energy protons, ejected from the suns surface during a solar flare, get caught by the Earths magnetic field and cause ionization in the ionosphere. ...

Much remains to be learned about space radiation. In 2003, NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center opened a facility, the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory, at Brookhaven National Laboratory that employs particle accelerators to simulate space radiation. The facility will study its effects on living organisms along with shielding techniques. [4] There is some evidence that this kind of low level, chronic radiation is not quite as dangerous as once thought; and that radiation hormesis occurs.^[7] The consensus among those that have studied the issues is that radiation levels, with the exception of the SPEs, that would be experienced on the surface of Mars, and whilst journeying there, are certainly a concern, but are not thought to prevent a trip from being made with current technology.^[8] Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... An aerial view of the Johnson Space Center facility of Houston in 1989 The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) is the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations center for human spaceflight activities. ... ≠ Aerial view of Brookhaven National Laboratory. ... Atom Smasher redirects here. ... Radiation hormesis is the theory that low doses of ionizing radiation are beneficial. ...

Communication

Communications with Earth are relatively straightforward during the half-sol when the Earth is above the Martian horizon. NASA and ESA included communications relay equipment in several of the Mars orbiters, so Mars already has communications satellites. While these will eventually wear out, additional orbiters with communication relay capability are likely to be launched before any colonization expeditions are mounted. U.S. military MILSTAR communications satellite A communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to comsat) is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purposes of telecommunications. ...

The round trip communication delay due to the speed of light ranges from about 6.5 minutes at closest approach to 44 minutes at superior conjunction. Telephone conversations or Internet Relay Chat between Earth and Mars would be highly impractical due to the long time lags involved. NASA has found that direct communication can be blocked for about two weeks every synodic period, around the time of superior conjunction when the Sun is directly between Mars and Earth. [5] A satellite at either of the Earth-Sun L4/L5 Lagrange points could serve as a relay during this period to solve the problem, or even a constellation of communications satellites, which would be a minor expense in the context of a full-blown Mars colonization program. A line showing the speed of light on a scale model of Earth and the Moon, taking about 1â…“ seconds to traverse that distance. ... This article is about Internet Relay Chat. ... The orbital period is the time it takes a planet (or another object) to make one full orbit. ... Conjunction is a term used in positional astronomy and astrology. ... Sol redirects here. ... In celestial mechanics, the Lagrangian points, (also Lagrange point, L-point, or libration point) are the five stationary solutions of the circular restricted three-body problem. ...

Robotic precursors

The path to a human colony could be prepared by robotic systems such as the Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity. These systems could help locate resources, such as ground water or ice, that would help a colony grow and thrive. The lifetimes of these systems would be measured in years and even decades, and as recent developments in commercial spaceflight have shown, it may be that these systems will involve private as well as government ownership. These robotic systems also have a reduced cost compared with early crewed operations, and have less political risk. An artists interpretation of the MESSENGER spacecraft at Mercury A robotic spacecraft is a spacecraft with no humans on board, that is usually under telerobotic control. ... Artists Concept of Rover on Mars (credit: Maas Digital LLC) Marvin the Martian, Spirit rover Mission patch Duck Dodgers, Opportunity rover Mission patch NASAs Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of two rovers â€” Spirit... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

Wired systems might lay the groundwork for early crewed landings and bases, by producing various consumables including fuel, oxidizers, water, and construction materials. Establishing power, communications, shelter, heating, and manufacturing basics can begin with robotic systems, if only as a prelude to crewed operations.

Early human missions

See also: Vision for Space Exploration

Early human missions to Mars, such as those being tentatively planned by NASA, ESA, and other national space agencies, would not be direct precursors to colonization. They are intended solely as exploration missions, as the Apollo missions to the Moon were not planned to be sites of a permanent base. Image from NASA site Two planned configurations for a return to the moon, heavy lift (left) and crew (right) The Vision for Space Exploration is the United States space policy announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... This article is about the European Space Agency. ...

Colonization requires the establishment of permanent bases that have potential for self-expansion. A famous proposal for building such bases is the Mars Direct plan, advocated by Robert Zubrin.^[9]. The Mars Society has established the Mars Analogue Research Station Programme at sites Devon Island in Canada and in Utah, USA, to experiment with different plans for human operations on Mars, based on Mars Direct. Mars Direct is a proposal for a relatively low-cost manned mission to Mars with current rocket technology. ... Zubrin giving a talk in 2005. ... The Mars Society is an international space advocacy non-profit organization dedicated to encouraging the exploration and settlement of Mars. ... FMARS, Devon Island (credit: The Mars Society UK) // Overview The Mars Analogue Research Station (MARS) Programme is an international effort spearheaded by The Mars Society to establish a network of prototype research centres where scientists and engineers can live and work as if they were on Mars, to develop the... Devon Island, Nunavut. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ...

Economics

As with early colonies in the New World, economics would be a crucial aspect to a colony's success. Whereas North American colonies established a trade in timber, furs, and other raw materials, early Mars colonies might be focused on developing local resources for their own consumption. These resources would certainly include water and/or ice. In the longer term, the reduced gravity well of Mars versus that of the Earth may improve the economics of lifting materials from the surface. This reduced gravity together with Mars' rotation rate makes possible the construction of a space elevator with today's materials, although the low orbit of Phobos presents challenges. In addition to the obstacle of making the economy self-supporting, another major economic problem is the enormous up-front investments required to establish the colony and perhaps also terraform the planet. Frontispiece of Peter Martyr dAnghieras De orbe novo (On the New World). Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, 1722. ... British colonization of the Americas (including colonization under the Kingdom of England before the 1707 Acts of Union created the Kingdom of Great Britain) began in the late 16th century, before reaching its peak after colonies were established throughout the Americas, and a protectorate was established in Hawaii. ... A space elevator would consist of a cable [4] anchored to the Earths surface [6], reaching into space. ... Phobos (IPA: or [ˈfoʊ.bəs]) (systematic designation: ) is the larger and closer of Mars two moons (the other being Deimos). ...

One of the main trade goods during early colonization would be manure.^[10] Assuming that life doesn't exist on Mars, the soil is going to be very poor for growing plants, so manure and other fertilizers will be valued highly in any Martian civilization, until the planet changes enough chemically to support growing vegetation on its own. Animal manure is often a mixture of animals feces and bedding straw, as in this example from a stable. ... This article is about hypothetical native inhabitants of the planet Mars. ...

Solar power will possibly be the main power source for a Martian colony since solar output is about same on Earth. Excess energy gathered in the day can be stored in batteries for back-up power and nightly use. However, a Martian colony needs large amounts of energy for heating the habitats and greenhouses, since temperatures are much lower compared to Earth. Small fission reactors could provide electric heating for the colony. Heating requirements could be lowered if the colonists use domes to trap solar heat. Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... The Royal Greenhouses of Laeken. ...

Possible locations for colonies

Mars can be considered in broad regions for discussion of possible colony sites.

Polar regions

Mars' north and south poles once attracted great interest as colony sites because seasonally-varying polar ice caps have long been observed by telescope from Earth. Mars Odyssey found the largest concentration of water near the north pole, but also showed that water likely exists in lower latitudes as well, making the poles less compelling as a colony locale. Like Earth, Mars sees a midnight sun at the poles during local summer and polar night during local winter. This article is about the geographical term. ... The midnight sun at Nordkapp, Norway. ... The polar night is the night lasting more than 24 hours, usually inside the polar circles. ...

Equatorial regions

Mars Odyssey found natural caves near the volcano Arsia Mons. Yet, the size and shape of the caves are unknown. Scientists suspect water ice on the ground of the caves. Colonists could possibly benefit from both shelter from radiation and ice reservoirs. Geothermal energy is also suspected in the equatorial regions. Artists concept of the 2001 Mars Odyssey Spacecraft 2001 Mars Odyssey is an unmanned spacecraft orbiting the planet Mars. ... Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech Arsia Mons is the southernmost of three volcanos (collectively known as Tharsis Montes) on the Tharsis bulge near the equator of the planet Mars. ...

Midlands

Eagle Crater, as seen from Opportunity

The exploration of Mars' surface is still underway. The two Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, have encountered very different soil and rock characteristics. This suggests that the Martian landscape is quite varied and the ideal location for a colony would be better determined when more data becomes available. As on Earth, the further one goes from the equator, the greater the seasonal climate variation one encounters. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 447 pixelsFull resolution (1024 × 572 pixel, file size: 194 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Image: Eagle Crater Source: http://www. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 447 pixelsFull resolution (1024 × 572 pixel, file size: 194 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Image: Eagle Crater Source: http://www. ... Eagle Crater is the small crater in which the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity found itself after landing on Mars in 2004. ... The launch patch for Opportunity, featuring Duck Dodgers (Daffy Duck). ... Artists Concept of Rover on Mars (credit: Maas Digital LLC) Marvin the Martian, Spirit rover Mission patch Duck Dodgers, Opportunity rover Mission patch NASAs Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of two rovers â€” Spirit...

Valles Marineris

Valles Marineris, the "Grand Canyon" of Mars, is over 3,000 km long and averages 8 km deep. Atmospheric pressure at the bottom would be some 25% higher than the surface average, 0.9 kPa vs 0.7 kPa. The canyon runs roughly east-west, so shadows from its walls should not interfere too badly with solar power collection. River channels lead to the canyon, indicating it was once flooded. Valles Marineris cuts a wide swath across the face of Mars Valles Marineris (Latin for Mariner Valley, named after the Mariner 9 Mars orbiter of 1971-72 which discovered it. ... This article is about the canyon in the southwestern United States. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

Concerns

Besides the general criticism of human colonization of space (see space colonization), there are specific concerns about a colony on Mars: Artists conception of a space habitat called the Stanford torus, by Don Davis Space colonization (also called space settlement, space humanization, space habitation, etc. ...

• Mars has a gravity 0.38 times that of the earth and a density of the atmosphere of 1% that on earth.^[11] The stronger gravity than the Moon and the presence of aerodynamic effects makes it more difficult to land heavy, crewed spacecraft with thrusters only, yet the atmosphere is also too thin to get very much use out of aerodynamic effects for braking and landing. Landing piloted missions on Mars will require a braking and landing system different from anything used to land crewed spacecraft on the Moon or robotic missions on Mars.^[12]

• The question of whether life once existed or exists now on Mars has not been settled, raising concerns about possible contamination of the planet with Earth life. See Life on Mars.

• Advocates of a return to the Moon say the Moon is a more logical first location for a first planetary colony, perhaps using it as a staging area for future manned missions to Mars. However, the moon has no atmosphere, no analogous geology and a much greater temperature range and rotational period. These differences make Mars more in common with Earth than the Moon. Antarctica or desert areas of Earth provide much better training grounds at vastly lesser cost. Also, the Moon has extreme poverty in several of the key elements required for life, most notably hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon (50 - 100 ppm), as well as the high delta-v required for takeoff and landing.^[13]

• It is unknown whether Martian gravity can support human life in the long term (all experience is at either ~1g or zero gravity). Space medicine researchers have theorized on whether the health benefits of gravity rise slowly or quickly between weightlessness and full Earth gravity. One theory is that sleeping chambers built inside centrifuges would minimize the health problems. The Mars Gravity Biosatellite experiment is due to become the first experiment testing the effects of partial gravity, artificially generated at 0.38 g to match Mars gravity, on mammal life, specifically on mice, throughout the life cycle from conception to death.^[14]

• Mars' escape velocity is 5 km/s, which, though less than half that for Earth, is reasonably high compared to the Moon's 2.38 km/s or the negligible escape velocity of most asteroids.^[15] This could make physical export trade from Mars to other planets and habitats less viable economically.

• There is likely to be little economic return from the colonization of Mars whilst Lunar and Near Earth Asteroid industry is likely to be exporting to Earth^[16]

For other uses, see Life on Mars (disambiguation). ... This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... The Mars Gravity Biosatellite project is a joint venture of MIT and the Georgia Institute of Technology to develop a free-flying spacecraft for un-crewed research flights. ... The term g force or gee force refers to the symbol g, the force of acceleration due to gravity at the earths surface. ... For other senses of this term, see escape velocity (disambiguation). ...

Colonization of Mars in fiction

A few instances in fiction provide detailed descriptions of Mars colonization. They include:

• Icehenge (1985), the Mars trilogy (Red Mars, Green Mars, Blue Mars, 1992–1996), and The Martians (1999) by Kim Stanley Robinson
• First Landing (2002) by Robert Zubrin
• Total Recall (1990), by Philip K Dick

• Climbing Olympus (1994), by Kevin J Anderson

Icehenge (1985) is a science-fiction novel by Kim Stanley Robinson. ... The Mars trilogy is a series of award-winning science fiction novels by Kim Stanley Robinson, chronicling the settlement and terraforming of the planet Mars. ... The Mars trilogy is a series of award-winning science fiction novels by Kim Stanley Robinson, chronicling the settlement and terraforming of the planet Mars. ... For the late American actress, see Kim Stanley. ... First Landing is a science fiction novel by Robert Zubrin that tells the story of the first manned space expedition to Mars. ... Zubrin giving a talk in 2005. ... For other uses, see Total recall (disambiguation). ... Philip Kindred Dick (December 16, 1928 – March 2, 1982), often known by his initials PKD, or by the pen name Richard Phillips, was an American science fiction writer and novelist who changed the genre profoundly. ... Kevin J. Anderson is a prolific science fiction author. ...

See also

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of

Colonising Mars

• Colonization of Venus
• Exploration of Mars
• In-Situ Resource Utilization
• Mars
• MARS-500
• Mars Direct
• MarsDrive
• Mars Analogue Research Station Programme
• Mars Society
• NASA's Vision for Space Exploration
• Red Colony
• Solar System
• Space weather
• Terraforming
• The Case for Mars

Image File history File links Wikibooks-logo-en. ... Wikibooks logo Wikibooks, previously called Wikimedia Free Textbook Project and Wikimedia-Textbooks, is a wiki for the creation of books. ... Venus The colonization of Venus has been a subject of much speculation and many works of science fiction since before the dawn of spaceflight, and is still much discussed. ... Computer-generated image of one of the two Mars Exploration Rovers which touched down on Mars in 2004. ... In astronautics, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) is the way to describe the use the resources of the planetary body which is explored (Moon, Mars,...) to provide propellant, energy or consumables to the science payload or to the crew which has been deployed there. ... This article is about the planet. ... MARS-500, the ground-based experiment simulating manned flight to Mars, will start in the fourth quarter of 2007 at the Institute of Biomedical Problems [1] of the Russian Academy of Sciences. ... Mars Direct is a proposal for a relatively low-cost manned mission to Mars with current rocket technology. ... MarsDrive is a consortium of various space advocacy organizations with the primary goal of sending a private, manned mission – and eventually colonial missions – to the planet Mars. ... FMARS, Devon Island (credit: The Mars Society UK) // Overview The Mars Analogue Research Station (MARS) Programme is an international effort spearheaded by The Mars Society to establish a network of prototype research centres where scientists and engineers can live and work as if they were on Mars, to develop the... The Mars Society is an international space advocacy non-profit organization dedicated to encouraging the exploration and settlement of Mars. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... Image from NASA site Two planned configurations for a return to the moon, heavy lift (left) and crew (right) The Vision for Space Exploration is the United States space policy announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush. ... The Red Colony logo Red Colony (often abbreviated RC) is an international Mars colonization and terraformation advocacy group, founded on July 4, 2000 by Alex Moore, while a high school freshman in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. ... This article is about the Solar System. ... Aurora australis observed by Discovery, May 1991. ... Artists conception of a terraformed Mars in four stages of development. ... The Case For Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must is a nonfiction science book by Robert Zubrin, first published in 1996. ...

References

Zubrin giving a talk in 2005. ... Zubrin giving a talk in 2005. ... Zubrin giving a talk in 2005. ... Zubrin giving a talk in 2005. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 261st day of the year (262nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 198th day of the year (199th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 261st day of the year (262nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Further reading

• Robert Zubrin, The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must, Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 1996, ISBN 0-684-83550-9
• Frank Crossman and Robert Zubrin, editors, On to Mars: Colonizing a New World. Apogee Books Space Series, 2002, ISBN 1-896522-90-4.
• Frank Crossman and Robert Zubrin, editors, On to Mars 2: Exploring and Settling a New World. Apogee Books Space Series, 2005, ISBN 978-1894959308.

The Case For Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must is a nonfiction science book by Robert Zubrin, first published in 1996. ...

External links

• Mars Society
• Our Mars
• The Planetary Society: Mars Millennium Project
• 4Frontiers Corporation
• MarsDrive Consortium
• The Mars Foundation
• Google Mars

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