Venus

The colonization of Venus has been a subject of much speculation and many works of science fiction since before the dawn of spaceflight, and is still much discussed. With the discovery of Venus' hostile surface environment, attention has largely shifted towards the colonization of the Moon and the colonization of Mars. Recently however, papers have surfaced on the feasibility of colonizing Venus beginning from the less hostile cloud-tops, making surface exploration in the beginning unnecessary. This two-part approach to the exploration and colonization of the planet has refocused interest on Venus. Image File history File links Venus-real_color. ... Image File history File links Venus-real_color. ... For other uses, see Venus (disambiguation). ... ISS in earth orbit. ... Lunar outpost redirects here. ... Mars Mars is the focus of much speculation and serious study about possible human colonization. ...

Reasons for colonization

Space colonization is a step beyond space exploration, and implies the permanent or long-term presence of humans in an environment outside Earth. Stephen Hawking has stated that colonization of space would be the best way to ensure the survival of humans as a species. ^[1] Other reasons for colonizing space include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans, and sheer curiosity. Venus being the second largest terrestrial planet and Earth's closest neighbour make it a potential target. Artists conception of a space habitat called the Stanford torus, by Don Davis Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, is the hypothetical permanent autonomous (self-sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth. ... The Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Artists conception of a space habitat called the Stanford torus, by Don Davis Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, is the hypothetical permanent autonomous (self-sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth. ... Saturns moon Titan in natural color. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Freeman Dyson has proposed that Trans-Neptunian Objects, rather than planets, are the major potential habitat of life in space. ... Space exploration is the physical exploration of outer space, both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft. ... Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA, (born 8 January 1942) is a British theoretical physicist. ... Space and survival is the relationship between space and the long-term survival of the human species and civilization. ... Homo sapiens (Latin: wise man) is the scientific name for the human species. ... The inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, their sizes to scale. ...

Advantages

Scale representations of Venus and the Earth shown next to each other. Venus is only slightly smaller.

Air pressure on Venus, beginning at a pressure on the surface 90 times that of Earth and reaching a single bar by 50 kilometres.

Venus has certain similarities to Earth which might make colonization easier in many respects in comparison with other possible destinations. These similarities, and its proximity, have led Venus to be called Earth's "sister planet". Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 396 pixelsFull resolution (930 × 460 pixel, file size: 686 KB, MIME type: image/png) This is a modification of Image:Terr sizes. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 396 pixelsFull resolution (930 × 460 pixel, file size: 686 KB, MIME type: image/png) This is a modification of Image:Terr sizes. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ...

At present it has not been established whether the gravity of Mars, about one-third that of the Earth, would be sufficient to avoid bone decalcification and loss of muscle tone experienced by astronauts living in an environment of microgravity (the probe Mars Gravity Biosatellite will be the first probe to investigate this). In contrast, Venus is close in size and mass to the Earth, resulting in a similar surface gravity (0.904 g). Most other space exploration and colonization plans face concerns about the damaging effect of long-term exposure to fractional g or zero gravity on the human musculoskeletal system. Humans born on Venus would probably have little difficulty adapting to Earth gravity should there be a reason to visit or return. There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... Astronauts on the International Space Station display an example of weightlessness Weightlessness is the experience (by people and objects) during freefall, of having no weight. ... The Mars Gravity Biosatellite project is a joint venture of MIT and the Georgia Institute of Technology to develop a free-flying spacecraft for un-crewed research flights. ... The term g force or gee force refers to the symbol g, the force of acceleration due to gravity at the earths surface. ... Astronauts on the International Space Station display an example of weightlessness Weightlessness is the experience (by people and objects) during freefall, of having no weight. ... The musculoskeletal system (also known as the locomotor system) is an organ system that gives animals the ability to physically move using the muscles and skeletal system. ...

Venus's relative proximity makes transportation and communications easier than for most other locations in the solar system. With current propulsion systems, launch windows to Venus occur every 584 days, compared to the 780 days for Mars. Flight time is also somewhat shorter; the probe Venus Express which recently arrived at Venus spent slightly over five months en route, compared to nearly six months for Mars Express. At closest approach, Venus is 45 million km from Earth compared to 56 million km for Mars. This is the closest any major body comes to the Earth, other than the Moon. Launch window is a term used in aerospace to describe a time period in which a particular rocket must be launched. ... Venus Express is the first Venus exploration mission of the European Space Agency. ... Concept model of the Mars Express spacecraft Main Engine Thrust for braking manouevre on Venus Express. ... This article is about Earths moon. ...

Difficulties

Venus also presents several significant challenges to human colonization. Surface conditions on Venus are extremely difficult. The temperature at the equator averages around 500 °C (932 °F), higher than the melting point of lead. The atmospheric pressure on the surface is also at least ninety times greater than on Earth, which is equivalent to the pressure experienced under a kilometer of water. These conditions have caused missions to the surface to be extremely brief: the probes Venera 5 and Venera 6 for example were crushed by high pressure 18 km above the surface. Following landers such as Venera 7 and Venera 8 succeeded in transmitting data after reaching the surface, but these missions were brief as well, surviving no more than a single hour on the surface. Obtaining materials from the surface for use by an upper-atmosphere colony would be a problem. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to liquid. ... General Name, Symbol, Number lead, Pb, 82 Chemical series Post-transition metals or poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 6, p Appearance bluish gray Standard atomic weight 207. ... Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any given point in the Earths atmosphere. ... Venera 5 Landing of Venera-5 Venera 5 (Russian: Венера-5) was a probe in the Soviet space program Venera for the exploration of Venus. ... Venera 6 Sketch of Venera 6 Venera 6 (Russian:Венера-6) was a Soviet spacecraft, launched from a Tyazheliy Sputnik (69-002C) on January 10 1969 towards Venus to obtain atmospheric data. ... The Venera 7 (Russian: Венера-7) was launched as part of the Venera program by the Soviet Union. ... Venera 8 Venera 8 landing capsule Venera 8 (Russian: Венера-8) was a probe in the Soviet Venera program for the exploration of Venus. ...

Furthermore, water, in any form, is almost entirely absent from Venus. The atmosphere is devoid of molecular oxygen and is primarily carbon dioxide in poisonously high concentrations. In addition, the visible clouds comprise, in part, sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide vapor. Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: ) is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... Sulfuric acid, (also known as sulphuric acid) H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ... Sulfur dioxide (or Sulphur dioxide) has the chemical formula SO2. ...

Methods of colonization and exploration

Given the hostile conditions of Venus, a colony on the Venusian surface in its present form is far beyond current technological capabilities. Some authors suggest overcoming this by terraforming Venus - making the planet more earth-like. The energy requirements for all terraforming plans are daunting when compared with our current technology, and the time required could possibly span tens of thousands of years, if not millions. In spite of this seemingly pessimistic time frame, terraforming in this manner offers the potential for exponential growth to remake the industrial base of the human race if humans are to set about the task of settling space en masse. If a large portion or the entire planet could be shaded, Venus would cool to a useful temperature in mere decades. Such methods would include placing sails (Solar shades) between Venus and the sun at Lagrange points between the two, controlled dust clouds in space, and a large number of other ideas. Artists conception of a terraformed Venus. ... Solar shades are a somewhat more radical approach to the mitigation of global warming through planetary engineering. ... In celestial mechanics, the Lagrangian points, (also Lagrange point, L-point, or libration point) are the five stationary solutions of the circular restricted three-body problem. ...

Others suggest a different approach, however, arguing that rather than attempting to colonize Venus' hostile surface, man might colonize the Venusian atmosphere (the most habitable part of any planet outside Earth). This is because at an altitude of approximately 50 kilometers (in Venus's upper atmosphere), the pressure and temperature are Earth-like (1 bar and 0-50 degrees Celsius). In addition, in this region, solar energy is abundant. The solar constant at the top of Venus's atmosphere is 2,610 watts per square meter, 1.9 times that of Earth, and the clouds are reflective enough that solar panels pointing downward towards them would be nearly as effective as those pointing upwards towards the sun. The atmospheric winds at this altitude would drive a floating station around the planet once every 100 hours or so. At higher altitudes this would take even less time, resulting in a 'day' much closer to the 24-hour day experienced on Earth than on the surface of Venus with the 243 days it takes to make a single rotation. Venus, the second planet from the Sun, has an atmosphere very different from that of Earth. ... Solar irradiance spectrum at top of atmosphere. ... For other uses, see Watt (disambiguation). ... A square metre (US spelling: square meter) is by definition the area enclosed by a square with sides each 1 metre long. ...

Exploration and research before colonization

As Venus has not been studied as much as objects such as the moon and Mars have, further research would have to be conducted on the planet before a human-powered mission could be approved. The probe Venus Express is currently in orbit around the planet, but other low-cost missions have been proposed to further explore the planet's atmosphere, as the area 50 kilometres above the surface where air pressure is at the same level as Earth has not yet been explored. Venus Express is the first Venus exploration mission of the European Space Agency. ...

One such proposed mission is a solar-powered flyer. Though wind speeds in the upper atmosphere of Venus can reach up to 95 m/s (342 km/h) at the cloud top level, the slightly lower gravity (8.87 m/s²) and the higher air pressure alleviate this somewhat, and flying an aircraft on Venus would be easier than one on Mars with its extremely low air pressure. The proposed flyer would base itself at an altitude of about 72 kilometres where the pressure is low enough and solar energy abundant enough that it could recharge itself for temporary incursions lower into the atmosphere for a number of hours. As daytime on Venus persists for over 100 days due to its extremely slow rotation, a flying craft could remain in perpetual sunlight, and would only need to move at a speed of 13.4 km/h at the equator to keep up with the planet's rotation. Exploring the other side of the planet however, would not be possible until sunlight reaches the area, as a solar-powered craft would not have the power to traverse the entire night side without recharging.^[2][3]

Aerostat habitats and floating cities

Geoffrey A. Landis has summarized the perceived difficulties in colonizing Venus as being merely from the assumption that a colony would need to be based on the surface of a planet: Geoffrey A. Landis emerged in the late 1980s as one of the foremost scientist-writers in the science fiction genre. ...

"However, viewed in a different way, the problem with Venus is merely that the ground level is too far below the one atmosphere level. At cloud-top level, Venus is the paradise planet."

He has proposed aerostat habitats followed by floating cities, based on the concept that breathable air (21:79 Oxygen-Nitrogen mixture) is a lifting gas in the dense Venusian atmosphere, with over 60% of the lifting power that helium has on Earth.^[4] In effect, a balloon full of human-breathable air would sustain itself and extra weight (such as a colony) in midair. At an altitude of 50 km above Venusian surface, the environment is the most Earth-like in the solar system - a pressure of approximately 1 bar and temperatures in the 0°C-50°C range. Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at normal atmospheric mixing rates, giving time to repair any such damages. In addition, humans would not require pressurized suits when outside, merely air to breathe and a protection from the acidic rain. Alternatively two-part domes could contain a lifting gas like hydrogen or helium (extractable from the atmosphere) to allow a higher mass density^[5]. Uncrewed aerostats can carry instruments and sensors for long durations that are impractical for humans and other aircraft. ... In science fiction, floating cities are settlements that use buoyancy to remain in the atmosphere of a planet. ... General Name, symbol, number helium, He, 2 Chemical series noble gases Group, period, block 18, 1, s Appearance colorless Standard atomic weight 4. ... The first launch of a gas balloon by Jacques Charles, 27 August 1783, at the Champ de Mars, Paris. ...

Cloud-top colonization also offers a way to avoid the issue of slow Venusian rotation. At the top of the clouds the wind speed on Venus reaches up to 95 m/s, circling the planet approximately every four Earth days in a phenomenon known as "super-rotation".^[6] Colonies floating in this region could therefore have a much shorter day length by remaining untethered to the ground and moving with the atmosphere. While a space elevator extending to the surface of Venus is impractical due to the slow rotation, constructing a skyhook that extended into the upper atmosphere and rotated at the wind speed would be difficult compared to constructing a space elevator on Earth. A space elevator would consist of a cable anchored to the Earths surface, reaching into space. ... For other uses, see Skyhook (disambiguation). ...

Since such colonies would be viable in current Venusian conditions, this allows a dynamic approach to colonization instead of requiring extensive terraforming measures in advance. The main challenge would be using a substance resistant to sulfuric acid to serve as the structure's outer layer; ceramics or metal sulfates could possibly serve in this role. (The sulfuric acid itself may prove to be the main motivation for creating the structure in the first place, as the acid has proven to be extremely useful for many different purposes such as lead-acid batteries. On the other hand, once we have the necessary technology to colonize Venus, such batteries will probably be outdated technology.) A valve-regulated, sometimes called sealed, lead acid battery Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. ...

Landis has suggested that as more floating cities were built, they could form a solar shield around the planet, and could simultaneously be used to process the atmosphere into a more desirable form. If made from carbon nanotubes (recently fabricated into sheet form) or graphene (a sheet-like carbon allotrope), the major structural materials can be produced using carbon dioxide gathered in situ from the atmosphere. The recently synthesised amorphous carbonia might prove a useful structural material if it can be quenched to STP conditions, perhaps in a mixture with regular silica glass. According to Birch's analysis such colonies and materials would provide an immediate economic return from colonizing Venus, funding further terraforming efforts. An electronic device known as a diode can be formed by joining two nanoscale carbon tubes with different electronic properties. ... Graphene is a single planar sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice. ... Allotropy (Gr. ... Amorphous carbonia, also called a-carbonia or a-CO2, is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass. ... In chemistry and other sciences, STP or standard temperature and pressure is a standard set of conditions for experimental measurements, to enable comparisons to be made between sets of data. ... The chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is the oxide of silicon, chemical formula SiO2. ...

Terraforming

Main article: Terraforming of Venus

Artist's conception of a terraformed Venus. (credit: Daein Ballard)

Terraforming (literally, "Earth-shaping") is the theoretical process of modifying a planet, moon, or other body to a more habitable atmosphere, temperature, or ecology. Venus has been the subject of a number of terraforming proposals. The proposals seek to remove or convert the dense carbon dioxide atmosphere, reduce Venus's 500 °C (770 K) surface temperature, and establish a day/night light cycle closer to that of Earth's. Artists conception of a terraformed Venus. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 591 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1262 × 1281 pixel, file size: 908 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) A conceptual picture I made of Venus if it were terraformed. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 591 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1262 × 1281 pixel, file size: 908 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) A conceptual picture I made of Venus if it were terraformed. ... For other uses, see Venus (disambiguation). ...

Most proposals involve deployment of a solar shade and/or a system of orbital mirrors, for the purpose of reducing insolation and providing light to the dark side of Venus. Another common thread in most proposals involves some introduction of large quantities hydrogen or water. Proposals also involve either freezing most of Venus's atmospheric CO₂, or converting it to other forms. Not to be confused with insulation. ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ...

Colonies in Venus Orbit

Another promising pathway to colonization is the use of near-Venus space for the orbital capture and development of comets and asteroids. Although Venus currently has no moons, in the near future it may be practical to nudge smaller bodies into orbit around the inner planets. Venus is especially good for this because aerobraking in its thick atmosphere can be used to slow these bodies down. Unlike near-Earth space where the danger of hitting the Earth would have severe effects on the civilization, near-Venus space does not suffer from this problem. The available free solar energy from the Sun makes Venus a desirable location for industrial development. An artists conception of a spacecraft aerobraking Aerobraking is a technique used by spacecraft in which it uses drag within a planetary atmosphere to reduce its velocity relative to the planet. ... Artists impression of a major impact event. ...

It is also a likely precursor to any serious attempt to develop economic activity in the gravity well of Venus. Resources in Venus orbit would be used to extend activity downward. However a space elevator would likely not be feasible due to Venus' slow rotation (243 Earth days). A skyhook into the atmosphere is however possible. A gravity well is the scientific/science fictional term for the distortion in space-time caused by a massive body such as a planet. ... A space elevator would consist of a cable anchored to the Earths surface, reaching into space. ... For other uses, see Skyhook (disambiguation). ...

Present exploration of Venus

The ESA space probe Venus Express arrived at the planet in May of 2006 and is currently undergoing an approximately 1,000-day mission (initially 500 days prolonged by another 500 in May 2007) to study the atmosphere and clouds in detail. ESA redirects here. ... Venus Express is the first Venus exploration mission of the European Space Agency. ...

Future missions include JAXA's Planet-C. The MESSENGER mission to Mercury had a flyby of Venus in October 2006 and in June 2007, and the BepiColombo mission to Mercury also plans a flyby of the planet. The Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency (JAXA) is Japans aerospace agency. ... PLANET-C, also known as Venus Climate Orbiter (VCO), is a planned Japanese unmanned spacecraft to explore Venus. ... This article is about the NASA space mission. ... This article is about the planet. ... BepiColombo is a joint Cornerstone mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to the planet Mercury. ...

See also

• Mars Society

The Mars Society is an international space advocacy non-profit organization dedicated to encouraging the exploration and settlement of Mars. ...

References

is the 79th day of the year (80th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ...

External links

• A Floating City on Venus - article from The Space Monitor

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