Honey bees entering a beehive.

Colony Collapse Disorder (or CCD) is a little-understood phenomenon in which worker bees from a beehive or Western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 799 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1638 × 1230 pixel, file size: 379 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 799 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1638 × 1230 pixel, file size: 379 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Domesticated Western honey bees are kept in beehives. ... Binomial name Linnaeus, 1758 Synonyms Apis mellifica Linnaeus, 1761 The Western honey bee or European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is a species of honey bee. ...

CCD was originally found in Western honey bee colonies in North America in late 2006.Paul Boulos is the cause for the bees death. ^[1] European beekeepers observed a similar phenomenon in Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Poland, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain^[2], and initial reports have also come in from Switzerland and Germany, albeit to a lesser degree.^[3] Possible cases of CCD have also been reported in Taiwan since April 2007.^[4] North America North America is a continent[1] in the Earths northern hemisphere and (chiefly) western hemisphere. ...

The cause (or causes) of the syndrome is not yet well understood. Theories include environmental change-related stresses,^[5] malnutrition, pathogens (i.e., disease^[6] including Israeli acute paralysis virus^[7][8]), mites, pesticides such as neonicotinoids or imidacloprid, radiation from cellular phones or other man-made devices,^[9] and genetically modified (GM) crops with pest control characteristics such as transgenic maize.^[10] That the disappearances have almost exclusively been reported from a subset of the commercial beekeepers in affected areas (i.e., not feral colonies or organic beekeepers), suggests to some that beekeeping practices can be a primary factor.^[11][12] A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. ... Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... Look up mite in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Pesticides vary in their effect on bees. ... In 2001, the US Patent and Trademark Office ruled in favor of Syngenta when the company filed suit against Bayer to protect its patent on a class of neonicotinoid insecticides. ... Imidacloprid is an insecticide developed and marketed by Bayer Cropscience (part of the drug and chemical conglomerate Bayer AG) under the trade name Merit ®. It is notable for its relatively low toxicity to most animals other than insects, due to its specificity for the type of synapse which is found... Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn. ... Transgenic maize (corn) has been deliberately genetically modified to have agronomically desirable traits. ... A feral horse (an American mustang) in Wyoming A feral animal or plant is one that has escaped from domestication and returned, partly or wholly, to its wild state. ... Organic farming is a form of agriculture which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. ...

From 1971 through 2006, there was a dramatic reduction in the number of feral (wild) honeybees in the US (now almost absent;^[13]) and a significant, though somewhat gradual decline in the number of colonies maintained by beekeepers. This decline includes the cumulative losses from all factors such as urbanization, pesticide use, tracheal and Varroa mites, and commercial beekeepers retiring and going out of business. However, late in the year 2006 and in early 2007 the rate of attrition was alleged to have reached new proportions, and the term "Colony Collapse Disorder" was proposed to describe this sudden rash of disappearances.^[1] Binomial name Acarapis woodi (Rennie, 1921) Acarapis woodi is a mite that is an internal parasite of honey bees. ... Binomial name Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman, 2000 Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that attacks honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera, the bumblebee Bombus pennsylvanicus, the scarab beetle Palpada vinetorum and the flower-fly Phanaeus vindex. ... A beekeeper is a person who keeps honey bees for the purposes of securing commodities such as honey, beeswax, pollen; pollinating fruits and vegetables; raising queens and bees for sale to other farmers; and/or for purposes satisfying natural scientific curiosity. ...

Limited occurrences resembling CCD have been documented as early as 1896,^[6][14] and this set of symptoms has in the past several decades been given many different names (disappearing disease, spring dwindle, May disease, autumn collapse, and fall dwindle disease^[15]. Most recently, a similar phenomenon in the winter of 2004/2005 occurred, and was attributed to Varroa mites (the "Vampire Mite" scare), though this was never ultimately confirmed. In none of the past appearances of this syndrome has anyone been able to determine its cause(s). Upon recognition that the syndrome does not seem to be seasonally-restricted, and that it may not be a "disease" in the standard sense—that there may not be a specific causative agent—the syndrome was renamed.^[16] Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... In medicine, the term syndrome is the association of several clinically recognizable features, signs, symptoms, phenomena or characteristics which often occur together, so that the presence of one feature alerts the physician to the presence of the others. ... The term disease causative agent usually refers to a biological pathogen that causes a disease. ...

Symptoms

A colony which has collapsed from CCD is generally characterized by all of these conditions occurring simultaneously^[17]:

• Complete absence of adult bees in colonies, with little or no build-up of dead bees in or around the colonies.
• Presence of capped brood in colonies. Bees normally will not abandon a hive until the capped brood have all hatched.
• Presence of food stores, both honey and bee pollen:

• i. which are not immediately robbed by other bees
• ii. which when attacked by hive pests such as wax moth and small hive beetle, the attack is noticeably delayed.

Precursor symptoms that may arise before the final colony collapse are:

• Insufficient workforce to maintain the brood that is present
• Workforce seems to be made up of young adult bees
• The Queen is present (i.e. she is not lost)
• The colony members are reluctant to consume provided feed, such as sugar syrup and protein supplement.

Recently hatched honey bee larvae are feeding on royal jelly for three days. ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomea purpurea),hollyhock (Sildalcea malviflora), lily (Lilium auratum), primrose(Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ... Hive may refer to: Hive mind, one of several forms of collective consciousness The Hives, a rock band Hive (record producer), a producer in the drum and bass music genre Hive (game) is an abstract-strategy board game published in 2001 Hive Records, a record label HIVE (ISP), the smallest... Carpet beetle larvae damaging a specimen of Sceliphron destillatorius in an entomological collection A pest is an organism which has characteristics that are regarded as injurious or unwanted. ... Lesser Wax Moth The Achroia grisella, or the lesser wax moth is a moth of the Galleriidae subfamily of the Pyradiae family, of the Lepidoptera order. ... The Small hive beetle (Aethina tumida) is a bee-keeping pest. ... A worker bee is a female honeybee which performs certain tasks in support of a bee hive. ... For the adult insect stage, see Imago. ... The queen bee is an adult, mated female in a honeybee colony or hive; she is usually the mother of all the bees in the hive. ... Protein supplement can refer to: a dietary supplement; or semen, as sexual slang. ...

Scale of the disorder

In the U.S., where diagnostic criteria were first established and where reports of CCD by now usually refer to actual cases, the disorder has been identified in a geographically diverse group of states including Georgia, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and California.^[18] Overall, in North America, at least 24 different states^[5][19] as well as portions of Canada^[20] have reported at least one case of CCD. In the US, anecdotal claims suggest that 25% of the managed honey bee population may have disappeared in 2006-2007.^[2] In Quebec, beekeepers claim that 40% of their beehives have died.^[4] Official language(s) None Capital Oklahoma City Largest city Oklahoma City Largest metro area Oklahoma City metro area Area  Ranked 20th  - Total 69,898 sq mi (181,196 km²)  - Width 230 miles (370 km)  - Length 298 miles (480 km)  - % water 1. ... Capital Harrisburg Largest city Philadelphia Area  Ranked 33rd  - Total 46,055 sq mi (119,283 km²)  - Width 280 miles (455 km)  - Length 160 miles (255 km)  - % water 2. ... Official language(s) None Capital Madison Largest city Milwaukee Area  Ranked 23rd  - Total 65,498 sq mi (169,790 km²)  - Width 260 miles (420 km)  - Length 310 miles (500 km)  - % water 17  - Latitude 42° 30′ N to 47° 05′ N  - Longitude 86° 46′ W to 92° 53′ W Population  Ranked... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Largest metro area Greater Los Angeles Area  Ranked 3rd  - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 770 miles (1,240 km)  - % water 4. ... , Motto: Je me souviens (French: I remember) Capital Quebec City Largest city Montreal Official languages French Government - Lieutenant-Governor Pierre Duchesne - Premier Jean Charest (PLQ) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 75 - Senate seats 24 Confederation July 1, 1867 (1st) Area  Ranked 2nd - Total 1,542,056 km² (595...

There are also cases reported from India, Brazil[4] and parts of Europe [5]. Since the beginning of the 1990s, France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Spain, Greece, Poland and the Netherlands have been affected by such disappearances, though this is not necessarily associated with CCD;^[2] Austria and England (where it has been dubbed the "Mary Celeste" phenomena, after the name of a ship whose crew disappeared in 1872) have also reportedly been affected.^[4]. For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... A 1861 painting of the Amazon (later renamed Mary Celeste) by an unknown artist. ...

It is far from certain, however, that all these reported cases are indeed CCD: there has been considerable publicity, but only rarely was the phenomenon described in sufficient detail. In Germany, for example, where some of the first reports of CCD in Europe appeared, and where - according to the German national association of beekeepers - 40% of the honey bee colonies died^[4], there has been no scientific confirmation; as of early May 2007, the German media are reporting that no confirmed CCD cases seem to have occurred in Germany.^[21]

Possible causes and research

While the exact mechanisms of CCD are unknown, a strong association between the disease and presence of the Israeli acute paralysis virus has been reported. Other factors may also be involved; malnutrition, pesticides, pathogens, immunodeficiencies, mites, fungus, genetically modified (GM) crops, beekeeping practices (such as the use of antibiotics, or long-distance transportation of beehives) and electromagnetic radiation have all been proposed as causative agents. Whether any single factor is responsible, or a combination of factors (acting independently in different areas affected by CCD, or acting in tandem), is still unknown. It is likewise still uncertain whether CCD is a genuinely new phenomenon, as opposed to a known phenomenon that previously only had a minor impact. Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... Pesticides vary in their effect on bees. ... A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. ... In medicine, immune deficiency (or immunodeficiency) is a state where the immune system is incapable of defending the organism from infectious disease. ... Look up mite in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Subkingdom/Phyla Chytridiomycota Blastocladiomycota Neocallimastigomycota Glomeromycota Zygomycota Dikarya (inc. ... Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn. ... An antibiotic is a drug that kills or slows the growth of bacteria. ... Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. ... The term disease causative agent usually refers to a biological pathogen that causes a disease. ...

At present, the primary source of information, and presumed "lead" group investigating the phenomenon, is the Colony Collapse Disorder Working Group, based primarily at Penn State University. Their preliminary report pointed out some patterns, but drew no strong conclusions.^[16] A scholarly review in June, 2007, similarly addressed numerous theories and possible contributing factors, but left the issue unresolved.^[15] The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium (MAAREC), established in 1997, is a regional group focused on addressing the pest management crisis facing the beekeeping industry in the Mid-Atlantic Region of the United States[1]. A task force has been established with representation from the departments of agriculture... The Pennsylvania State University The Pennsylvania State University (commonly known as Penn State) is a state-related land-grant university in Pennsylvania, with over 80,000 students at 24 campuses throughout the state. ...

In July, 2007, the USDA released its "CCD Action Plan", which indicates "The current strategy for addressing the CCD crisis involves four main components: The U.S. Department of Agriculture, also called the Agriculture Department, or USDA, is a Cabinet department of the United States Federal Government. ...

1. survey and data collection;
2. analysis of samples;
3. hypothesis-driven research; and,
4. mitigation and preventative action."[6]

Poor nutrition or malnutrition

One of the patterns reported by the aforementioned group at Penn State was that all producers in a preliminary survey noted a period of "extraordinary stress" affecting the colonies in question prior to their die-off, most commonly involving poor nutrition and/or drought.^[16] To date, this is the only factor that all of the reported cases of CCD have in common; accordingly, there is at least some significant possibility that this phenomenon is correlated to nutritional stress, and may not manifest in healthy, well-nourished colonies.

Some researchers have attributed the syndrome to the practice of feeding high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) to supplement winter stores. The variability of HFCS may be relevant to the apparent inconsistencies of results. European commentators have suggested a possible connection with HFCS produced from genetically modified corn.^[3] If this were the sole factor involved, however, this should also lead to the exclusive appearance of CCD in wintering colonies being fed HFCS, but many reports of CCD occur in other contexts, with beekeepers who do not use HFCS. High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) refers to a group of corn syrups which have undergone enzymatic processing in order to increase their fructose content and are then mixed with pure corn syrup (100% glucose) to reach their final form. ...

Pesticides

Further information: Pesticide toxicity to bees

One of the more common general hypotheses concerns pesticides (or, more specifically, insecticides), though several studies have found no common environmental factors between unrelated outbreaks studied. Pesticides vary in their effect on bees. ... A cropduster spreading pesticide. ... It has been suggested that ovicide be merged into this article or section. ...

It is particularly difficult to evaluate pesticide contributions to CCD for several reasons. First, the variety of pesticides in use in the different areas reporting CCD makes it difficult to test for all possible pesticides simultaneously. Second, many commercial beekeeping operations are mobile, transporting hives over large geographic distances over the course of a season, potentially exposing the colonies to different pesticides at each location. Third, the bees themselves place pollen and honey into long-term storage, effectively meaning that there may be a delay of anywhere from days to months before contaminated provisions are fed to the colony, negating any attempts to associate the appearance of symptoms with the actual time at which exposure to pesticides occurred. Pesticides used on bee forage are far more likely to enter the colony via the pollen stores rather than via nectar (because pollen is carried externally on the bees, while nectar is carried internally, and may kill the bee if too toxic), though not all potentially lethal chemicals, either natural or man-made, affect the adult bees - many primarily affect the brood, but brood die-off does not appear to be happening in CCD. Most significantly, brood are not fed honey, and adult bees consume relatively little pollen; accordingly, the pattern in CCD suggests that if contaminants or toxins from the environment are responsible, it is most likely to be via the honey, as it is the adults that are dying (or leaving), not the brood. Beekeeping, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV century) Beekeeping (or apiculture, from Latin apis, a bee) is the practice of intentional maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), prairie hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), oriental lily (Lilium auratum), evening primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ...

One recently published view is that bees are falling victim to new varieties of nicotine-based pesticides;^[22][23] beekeepers in Canada are also losing their bees and are blaming neonicotinoid pesticides. To date, most of the evaluation of possible roles of pesticides in CCD have relied on the use of surveys submitted by beekeepers, but it seems likely that direct testing of samples from affected colonies will be needed, especially given the possible role of systemic insecticides such as the neonicotinoid imidacloprid (which are applied to the soil and taken up into the plant's tissues, including pollen and nectar), which may be applied to a crop when the beekeeper is not present. The known effects of imidacloprid on insects, including honey bees, are consistent with the symptoms of CCD;^[24] for example, the effects of imidacloprid on termites include apparent failure of the immune system, and disorientation.^[25] In Europe the interaction of the phenomenon of "dying bees" with imidacloprid, has been discussed for quite some time now.^[26][27][28] It was a study from the "Comité Scientifique et Technique (CST)" which was in the center of discussion recently, which led to a partial ban of imidacloprid in France (known as Gaucho), primarily due to concern over potential effects on honey bees.^[29][30][31] Consequently when fipronil, a phenylpyrazole insecticide and in Europe mainly labeled "Regent", was used as a replacement , it was also found to be toxic to bees, and banned partially in France in 2004 .^[32] In February 2007, about forty French deputies, led by UMP member Jacques Remiller, requested the creation of a Parliamentary Investigation Commission on Overmortality of Bees, underlining that the honey production was decreasing of a 1,000 tons a year since a decade. As of August 2007, no investigation were yet opened ^[33]. The Gaucho imidacloprid pesticide was banned however in 1999 by the French Minister of Agriculture Jean Glavany. Five other insecticides based on "fipronil" were also "accused" of killing bees. However, the scientific committees of the European Union still are of the opinion "that the available monitoring studies were mainly performed in France and EU-member-states should consider the relevance of these studies for the circumstances in their country."^[34] This article is about the chemical compound. ... In 2001, the US Patent and Trademark Office ruled in favor of Syngenta when the company filed suit against Bayer to protect its patent on a class of neonicotinoid insecticides. ... It has been suggested that ovicide be merged into this article or section. ... Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide produced by the chemical firm Bayer AG. In France it was sold under the name Gaucho and its use is highly controversial as it is believed to be responsible for high losses in bees. ... In Greek mythology, nectar and ambrosia are the food of the gods. ... Families Mastotermitidae Kalotermitidae Termopsidae Hodotermitidae Rhinotermitidae Serritermitidae Termitidae Wikispecies has information related to: Isoptera Termites, sometimes known as white ants, are a group of social insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera. ... This article is about the modern National Assembly. ... The Union for a Popular Movement (Union pour un Mouvement Populaire, UMP), is the main French centre-right political party. ... Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide produced by the chemical firm Bayer AG. In France it was sold under the name Gaucho and its use is highly controversial as it is believed to be responsible for high losses in bees. ... Jean Glavany (born in Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine, May 14, 1949) is a French politician, member of the Socialist Party (PS) and former Minister. ...

In 2005, a team of scientists led by the National Institute of Beekeeping in Bologna, Italy, found that pollen obtained from seeds dressed with imidacloprid contains significant levels of the insecticide, and suggested that the polluted pollen might cause honey bee colony death.^[35] Analysis of maize and sunflower crops originating from seeds dressed with imidacloprid suggest that large amounts of the insecticide will be carried back to honey bee colonies.^[36] Sub-lethal doses of imidacloprid in sucrose solution have also been documented to affect homing and foraging activity of honeybees.^[37] Imidacloprid in sucrose solution fed to bees in the laboratory impaired their communication for a few hours.^[38] Sub-lethal doses of imidacloprid in laboratory and field experiment decreased flight activity and olfactory discrimination, and olfactory learning performance was impaired.^[39] However, no detailed studies of toxicity or pesticide residue in remaining honey or pollen in CCD-affected colonies have been published so far, so, despite the similarity in symptoms, no connection of neonicotinoids to CCD has yet been confirmed.

Antibiotics and miticides

Most beekeepers affected by CCD report that they use antibiotics and miticides in their colonies, though the lack of uniformity as to which particular chemicals are used^[16] makes it seem unlikely that any single such chemical is involved. However, it is possible that not all such chemicals in use have been tested for possible effects on honey bees, and could therefore potentially be contributing to the CCD phenomenon.^[15] Some reports indicate that organic beekeepers (who do not use antibiotics or miticides) are not affected by CCD, despite proximity to non-organic beekeepers that have been affected.^[11] Staphylococcus aureus - Antibiotics test plate. ... Miticides are pesticides that kill mites. ...

Pathogens and immunodeficiency theories

Further information: Pathogen, immunodeficiency, and diseases of the honey bee

A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. ... In medicine, immune deficiency (or immunodeficiency) is a state where the immune system is incapable of defending the organism from infectious disease. ... Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ...

General

Some researchers have commented that the pathway of propagation functions in the manner of a contagious disease; however, there is some sentiment that the disorder may involve an immunosuppressive mechanism,^[40] potentially linked to the aforementioned "stress" leading to a weakened immune system. Specifically, according to researchers at Penn State: "The magnitude of detected infectious agents in the adult bees suggests some type of immunosuppression." These researchers initially suggested a connection between Varroa destructor mite infestation and CCD, suggesting that a combination of these bee mites, deformed wing virus (which the mites transmit) and bacteria work together to suppress immunity and may be one cause of CCD.^[41] This research group is reported to be focusing on a search for possible viral, bacterial, or fungal pathogens which may be involved.^[16] A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. ... Immunosuppression is the medical suppression of the immune system. ... Binomial name Anderson & Trueman, 2000 Low Temperature Scanning Electron Microscope (LTSEM) image of Varroa destructor on a honey bee host Varroa mites on pupa Varroa destructor on bee larva. ... Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) is an RNA virus, one of 18 known viruses, affecting the honey bee, Apis mellifera. ...

When a colony is dying, for whatever cause, and there are other healthy colonies nearby (as is typical in a bee yard), those healthy colonies often enter the dying colony and rob its provisions for their own use. If the dying colony's provisions were contaminated (by natural or man-made toxins), the resulting pattern (of healthy colonies becoming sick when in proximity to a dying colony) might suggest to an observer that a contagious disease is involved. However, it is typical in CCD cases that provisions of dying colonies are not being robbed, suggesting that at least this particular mechanism (toxins being spread via robbing, thereby mimicking a disease) is not involved in CCD. An apiary in South Carolina; Langstroth hives on pallets. ...

Additional evidence that CCD might be an infectious disease came from the following observation: the hives of colonies that had died from CCD could be reused with a healthy colony only if they were first treated with DNA-destroying radiation.^[8]

Nosema

Some have suggested that the syndrome may be an inability by beekeepers to correctly identify known diseases such as European foulbrood or the microsporidian fungus Nosema. The testing and diagnosis of samples from affected colonies (already performed) makes this highly unlikely, as the symptoms are fairly well-known and differ from what is classified as CCD. A high rate of Nosema infection was reported in samples of bees from Pennsylvania, but this pattern was not reported from samples elsewhere.^[16] Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... Subclasses Dihaplophasea Haplophasea Microsporidia are parasites of animals, now considered to be extremely reduced fungi. ... Nosema apis is a microsporidian, a small, unicellular parasite that mainly affects honey bees. ...

Mariano Higes, a scientist heading a team at a government-funded apiculture centre in Guadalajara, Spain, has reported that when hives of European honey bees were infected with Nosema ceranae, a recently-described microsporidian fungus, the colonies were wiped out within eight days^[42]. Higes has extrapolated from this research to conclude that CCD is caused by N. ceranae. Higes and his team have worked on this problem since 2000, and claim to have ruled out many other potential causes.^[43][33] Various areas in Europe have reported this fungus, but no direct link to CCD has yet been established.^[44][45] Highly preliminary evidence of N. ceranae was recently reported in a few hives in the Merced Valley area of California (USA). "Tests of genetic material taken from a "collapsed colony" in Merced County point to a once-rare microbe that previously affected only Asian bees but might have evolved into a strain lethal to those in Europe and the United States.^[46][47]" The researcher did not, however, believe this was conclusive evidence of a link to CCD; "We don't want to give anybody the impression that this thing has been solved.^[48]" A USDA bee scientist has similarly stated, "while the parasite nosema ceranae may be a factor, it cannot be the sole cause. The fungus has been seen before, sometimes in colonies that were healthy."^[49] Likewise, a Washington State beekeeper familiar with N. ceranae in his own hives discounts it as being the cause of CCD.^[50] A study reported in September 2007 found that 100% of afflicted and 80% of non-afflicted colonies contained Nosema ceranae.^[8] Guadalajara province Guadalajara is a province of central Spain, in the northern part of the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha. ... Binomial name Fries et al. ... The U.S. Department of Agriculture, also called the Agriculture Department, or USDA, is a Cabinet department of the United States Federal Government. ...

The primary antibiotic used against Nosema is Fumagillin, which has been used in a German research project to reduce the microsporidian's impact, and is mentioned as a possible remedy by the CCDWG.^[51] Fumagillin is an antibiotic originally used against fungal Nosema apis infections in honeybees. ...

Varroa and Israel Acute Paralysis Virus

According to a 2007 article, the mites Varroa destructor remain the world's most destructive honey bee killer due in part to the viruses they carry, including Deformed Wing Virus and Acute bee paralysis virus, which have both been implicated in CCD.^[41] Affliction with Varroa mites also tends to weaken the immune system of the bees. As such, Varroa have been considered as a possible cause of CCD, though not all dying colonies contain these mites.^[52] Look up mite in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Binomial name Anderson & Trueman, 2000 Low Temperature Scanning Electron Microscope (LTSEM) image of Varroa destructor on a honey bee host Varroa mites on pupa Varroa destructor on bee larva. ... This article is about biological infectious particles. ... Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) is an RNA virus, one of 18 known viruses, affecting the honey bee, Apis mellifera. ... Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil (yellow), engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange). ...

In September 2007, results of a large-scale statistical RNA sequencing study of afflicted and non-afflicted colonies were reported. RNA from all organisms in a colony was sequenced and compared with sequence databases to detect the presence of pathogens. The study used technology from 454 Life Sciences developed for human genome sequencing. All colonies were found to be infected with numerous pathogens, but only the Israel acute paralysis virus (IAPV) showed a significant association with CCD: the virus was found in 25 of the 30 tested CCD colonies, and only in one of the 21 tested non-CCD colonies.^[8] Scientists pointed out that this association was no proof of causation, and other factors may also be involved in the disease or the presence of IAPV may only be a marker signifying afflicted colonies and not the actual causative agent. To prove causation, experiments were planned to deliberately infect colonies with the virus.^[7] Ribonucleic acid or RNA is a nucleic acid polymer consisting of nucleotide monomers that plays several important roles in the processes that translate genetic information from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into protein products; RNA acts as a messenger between DNA and the protein synthesis complexes known as ribosomes, forms vital portions... In genetics and biochemistry, sequencing means to determine the primary structure (or primary sequence) of an unbranched biopolymer. ... 454 Life Sciences is a biotechnology company based in Branford, Connecticut specializing in high-throughput DNA sequencing using a novel massively parallel sequencing-by-synthesis approach. ... Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... Diseases of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main article: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ...

The IAPV was discovered in 2004 and belongs to the Dicistroviridae. It causes paralysis in bees which then die outside of the hive. It can be transmitted by the mite Varroa destructor. These mites, however, were found in only half of the CCD colonies.^[8] Genera Cripavirus Iflavirus The viridae are a family of viruses, including the following genera: Genus Cripavirus; type species: Cricket paralysis virus Genus Iflavirus; type species: Infectious flacherie virus Categories: Viruses | Virus stubs ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The virus was also found in samples of Australian honey bees. Australian honey bees have been imported into the U.S. since 2004^[7] and it is possible that this is how the virus reached North America.

Genetically modified crops (GMO)

Further information: Genetically modified organism

Potential effects on honey bees of gathering pollen and nectar from genetically modified (GM) crops that produce Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin have been investigated, and there is scant evidence of deleterious effects on bees visiting such crops. Corn (maize), the major such crop, is not a preferred plant for honey bees, although beekeepers who keep bees near corn fields state that "corn is an excellent source of pollen when in tassel".^[22] Cotton, the second important Bt crop, is highly subject to bee visitation for nectar (pollen is only consumed if there is no other pollen available^[53]), but there is no credible evidence of toxicity of GM cotton, other than that from insecticides used during bloom. GloFish: the first genetically modified animal to be sold as a pet. ... In Greek mythology, nectar and ambrosia are the food of the gods. ... Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn. ... Binomial name Berliner 1915 Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil dwelling bacterium of the genus Bacillus. ... This article is about the maize plant. ... The honeybee is a colonial insect that is often maintained, fed, and transported by farmers. ... Beekeeping, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV century) Beekeeping (or apiculture, from Latin apis, a bee) is the practice of intentional maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), prairie hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), oriental lily (Lilium auratum), evening primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ... This article is about the maize plant. ... For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation). ...

The Sierra Club Genetic Engineering Committee recently published a letter to Senator Thomas Harkin on the web.^[10] They are of the opinion that "highly respected scientists believe that exposure to genetically engineered crops and their plant-produced pesticides merit serious consideration as either the cause or a contributory factor to the development and spread of CCD." Nine literature references which might support this theory are cited.^[10] The Sierra Club is an American environmental organization founded on May 28, 1892 in San Francisco, California by the well-known preservationist John Muir, who became its first president. ...

The primary effects of Bt on insects is in the larval stage. Thus the studies on Bt-toxins and effects on honey bees originally concentrated more on larvae and their development. However, as pollen is an important part of bee bread, which is also food for adult bees, some beekeepers think that adult bees may be more affected by ingredients of pollen, because adult bees are something like a filter for larvae. And as the CCD phenomenon involves the disappearance of the adult bees, some think there could be a direct connection^[54] despite the absence of symptoms in the larvae, and despite any evidence that the bees experiencing CCD have ever been exposed to GM crops. A larval insect A larva (Latin; plural larvae) is a juvenile form of animal with indirect development, undergoing metamorphosis (for example, insects or amphibians). ... ≥Bee bread or bee pollen[1] is the main source of food for most honey bees and their larvae. ...

In 2005 Bt maize, which is commercially planted in the US since 1996, accounted for 35% (106,400 km²) of total US maize plantings. GM insect resistant Bt cotton has also been grown commercially in the US since 1996 and by 2005, was planted on 52% (28,000 km²) of total cotton plantings.^[55] According to David Hackenberg, former president of the American Beekeeping Federation and leading the public information concerning CCD as a beekeeper, "beekeepers that have been most affected so far have been close to corn, cotton, soybeans, canola, sunflowers, apples, vine crops and pumpkins", though Hackenberg personally attributes CCD to neonicotinoid pesticides applied to these crops.^[22] Thus, some Bt plants may have been visited by honey bees that later exhibited CCD. However, similar massive bee die-offs (or disappearances) have been recorded for decades prior to the introduction of these crops,^[6] and also "have occurred in Europe and areas of Canada where Bt crops were not grown."^[56] It should be noted, however, that some secret field trials of Bt maize do occur in Europe (e.g., in Spain and Germany [7][8]). See also [9][10][11][12].

Various documents relating to US risk assessment studies on Bt in relation to honey bees are published on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) homepage for Biopesticides Registration Action Documents;^[57][58][59] there is no indication that any of these studies found effects of Bt pollen on honey bees. Risk assessment is a step in the risk management process. ... EPA redirects here. ...

In 2004 the knowledge of GMO authorisation agencies was mainly based on a comprehensive review of the scientific literature published in Bee World^[60] which examined the effects of various commercialized and uncommercialized transgenes on honey bees. The review concludes that "evidence available so far shows that none of the GM plants currently commercially available have significant impacts on honey bee health." However, in 2005 a new publication in the Journal Apidologie^[61] indicated that foraging activity of bees fed with CRY1Ab may decline continuously through the treatment stages without any recovery between treatments (though in the treatment with CRY1Ab-enriched feed, no significant differences in bee mortality were found at different treatment stages). The European Union GMO Panel of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) did not share the view by the authors “that the above results were mainly CRY1Ab dependent.” The Panel was of the opinion that “negative effects on bees are likely not directly associated with exposure to the CRY1Ab protein because of the design of the experiment and lack of simultaneous controls or replication.^[62] The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), an agency of the European Union, began operating in 2002. ...

A research study conducted in Germany suggested that rather than having a direct effect, exposure to Bt maize pollen may weaken the adult bees' defense against Nosema, though in the absence of such an infection, there were no detectable effects: "When the trial was repeated the colonies were treated prophylactically with antibiotics to prevent re-infection…This indicates that healthy bee colonies are not impaired in any way by the toxin in any of the tested vital functions of colony size, foraging activity, brood care activity or development, even when exposed to extreme levels of Bt maize pollen over a period of six weeks."^[63] However, if "the bee colonies happened to be infested with parasites (microsporidia), this infestation led to a reduction in the number of bees and subsequently to reduced broods….This effect was significantly more marked in the Bt-fed colonies." It has further been suggsted that "genetically modified corn may have altered the surface of the bee's intestines, sufficiently weakening the bees to allow the parasites to gain entry—or perhaps it was the other way around" though it was also noted "Of course, the concentration of the toxin was ten times higher in the experiments than in normal Bt corn pollen. In addition, the bee feed was administered over a relatively lengthy six-week period."^[64] Other more recent studies have failed to show any adverse effects of Bt pollen on healthy bee colonies^[56], but the possibility that Bt pollen weakens already unhealthy colonies has not been explored. Nosema apis is a microsporidian, a small, unicellular parasite that mainly affects honey bees. ...

The preliminary report of the Colony Collapse Disorder Working Group^[6] concerning "Fall Dwindle Disease"^[16] indicated that "all PA samples were found to have Nosema spores in their rectal contents. The sting gland of many examined bees was obviously scarred with distinct black “marks”; this type of pin-point melanization or darkening is indicative of an immune response to some sort of pathogen." If the bees in Pennsylvania were gathering Bt-toxin-containing corn pollen, it could potentially have interacted with Nosema and thus contributed to CCD in those colonies; however, there is no evidence that these colonies were gathering corn pollen at any point prior to their deaths, nor has it been reported that colonies afflicted by CCD elsewhere had been collecting corn pollen. Many of the colonies reported to be dying from CCD occur in locations where GM corn is not grown (at least in the United States; also, 5 of the 10 states with the greatest amount of corn production, including GM corn - Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska - have had no reported cases of CCD^[19][15]), nor have bees from other areas outside of Pennsylvania been reported to be significantly infected by Nosema (e.g.,^[16]). The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium (MAAREC), established in 1997, is a regional group focused on addressing the pest management crisis facing the beekeeping industry in the Mid-Atlantic Region of the United States[1]. A task force has been established with representation from the departments of agriculture... Capital Harrisburg Largest city Philadelphia Area  Ranked 33rd  - Total 46,055 sq mi (119,283 km²)  - Width 280 miles (455 km)  - Length 160 miles (255 km)  - % water 2. ...

In 2006 the "Committee on Status and Trends of Pollinators" of the United States National Research Council published a report on the "Status of Pollinators in North America".^[65] It suggested that GMO, besides other factors, might contribute to pollinator decline because, according to one scientific review of "the small literature on this topic,…in some cases, there are negative but sublethal effects attributable to consumption of transgenic pollens." The report goes on to say that, "These effects varied with the identity of the transgene and the amount of its expression, but in no case have any effects of transgenic crops on honey bee populations been documented."^[66] The National Research Council (NRC) of the USA is the working arm of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the United States National Academy of Engineering, carrying out most of the studies done in their names. ...

On March 28 2007, the "Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium"^[67] published a new "Summary of Research on the Non-Target Effects of Bt Corn Pollen on Honeybees", which states that according to "a field study… (soon to be published in the bee journal Apidologie) there is no evidence thus far of any lethal or sub-lethal effects of the currently used Bt proteins on honey bees", and, specifically regarding the possible causal connections between Bt pollen and CCD, stated "While this possibility has not been ruled out, the weight of evidence reported here argues strongly that the current use of Bt crops is not associated with CCD."^[56]

Bee rentals and Migratory Beekeeping

Further information: Beekeeping

Moving spring bees from South Carolina to Maine for blueberry pollination

Since US beekeeper Nephi Miller first began moving his hives to different areas of the country for the winter of 1908, migratory beekeeping has become widespread in America. It is a crucial element of US agriculture, which could not produce anywhere near its current levels with native pollinators alone^{[citation needed]}. US beekeepers collectively earn much more from renting their bees out for pollination than they do from honey production. Beekeeping, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV century) Beekeeping (or apiculture, from Latin apis, a bee) is the practice of intentional maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1229x922, 288 KB) US migratory beekeepers loading tractor-trailer load of bees for transport from South Carolina to Maine to pollinate blueberries. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1229x922, 288 KB) US migratory beekeepers loading tractor-trailer load of bees for transport from South Carolina to Maine to pollinate blueberries. ...

Researchers are concerned that trucking colonies around the country to pollinate crops, where they intermingle with other bees from all over, helps spread viruses and mites among colonies. Additionally, such continuous movement and re-settlement is considered by some a strain and disruption for the entire hive, possibly rendering it less resistant to all sorts of systemic disorder.^[68] One major US beekeeper reports moving his hives from Idaho to California in January, then to apple orchards in Washington in March, to North Dakota two months later, and then back to Idaho by November - a journey of several thousands of miles. Others move from Florida to New Hampshire or to Texas; nearly all visit California for the almond bloom in January. Keepers in Europe and Asia are generally far less mobile, with bee populations moving and mingling within a smaller geographic extent (although some keepers do move longer distances, it is much less common). This wider spread and intermingling in the US has resulted in far greater losses from Varroa mite infections in recent years.^[69]

Climate Change

Some beekeepers think the culprit may be climate change, in which the earth as a whole is warming but regional and local temperatures may drop much lower or higher than normal. "Erratic weather patterns caused by global warming could play havoc with bees’ sensitive cycles. A lot of northeastern U.S. beekeepers say a late cold snap is what did the damage to them this year" [13]. Indeed an unusually dry and warm winter prevented the flowering of many plants, "If there is not a common thread, such as a pathogen seen in many of the affected colonies, Professor Eric Mussen of UC Davis said he is convinced that a nutritional deficit helps explain how the honeybees were weakened by the smorgasbord of potential causes of death. That is because dry conditions, certainly in California, did not produce flowers in which bees find their required mix of pollens, he said ... 'In many situations the bees were weakened by not being able to get a nice mix of nutrients that they needed from the pollens, and I think that weakened them,' he said. 'Under those circumstances you can take all the other (causes), and there are plenty of them, and combine them together and down go the bees'" [14]. Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 450,000 years For current global climate change, see Global warming. ...

"Dry conditions in many parts of the country last fall reduced good nectar flow, so fewer good fall pollens were taken into colonies. 'Bees rely on fall pollens to rear a brood and take them through the winter. It was a hard fall, followed by a warm winter, and bees were out flying. There weren’t any resources (food) out there, so the bees were burning up flight muscles'" [15]. "Well, you get this blast of hot temperature, which is about the time the flower buds are forming and the pollen grains are beginning to form. What does that do? You get sterile pollen. A beekeeper could look into the hive and say, "I've got all kinds of pollen in there and the bees disappeared." Well, right, you've got pollen grains, but do they have any nutrition in them? ... I think something happened at the end of last year in many places in the temperate climate around the world, not just here, and fouled up the bees' food supply. Unless somebody tells me differently, I'm blaming it on the weather ... for whatever reason, we are beginning to kind of move into a cycle where we are going to find more extremes than we used to have. The droughts may be hotter and longer, the storms and floods may be more severe. Things aren't going to be so nice in the future" [16]. In fact the first half of 2006 was the warmest on record in U.S.[17].

Some say that flowers are blooming earlier than in the past, "Climate change and earlier springs have also taken a toll. Plants like red maples and pussy willows, typically the first pollen sources for honeybees, have been blossoming weeks before the bees can fly in the spring, Conrad [author of Natural Beekeeping] said, so they miss out on that important source of pollen" [18]. Wayne Esaias, a NASA climatologist and beekeeper has been keeping tabs on the possible connection [19][20]. See also Bees, Pollination and Climate Change: A Guide to Selected Resources.

Electromagnetic radiation

Further information: Electromagnetic radiation and Mobile phone radiation and health

In April 2007, news of a University of Landau study appeared in major media, beginning with an article in The Independent that stated that the subject of the study was mobile phones and had related them to CCD.^[9] Cellular phones were implicated by other media reports, but were in fact not covered in the study, and the researchers have since emphatically disavowed any connection between their research, cell phones, and CCD, specifically indicating that the Independent article had misinterpreted their results and created "a horror story".^[70][71][72] Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. ... A Greenfield-type tower used in base stations for mobile telephony A mobile phone (Samsung) Mobile phone radiation and health concerns have been raised, especially following the enormous increase in the use of wireless mobile telephony throughout the world (as of August 2005, there were more than 2 billion users... The University of Koblenz-Landau (German Universität Koblenz - Landau) is a university located in Koblenz and Landau, Germany. ... For other uses, see The Independent (disambiguation). ... Cellular redirects here. ...

The 2006 University of Landau pilot study was looking for non-thermal effects of radio frequency ("RF") on honey bees (Apis mellifera carnica) and suggested that when bee hives have DECT cordless phone base stations embedded in them, the close-range electromagnetic field ("EMF") may reduce the ability of bees to return to their hive; they also noticed a slight reduction in honeycomb weight in treated colonies.^[73] In the course of their study, one half of their colonies broke down, including some of their controls which did not have DECT base stations embedded in them. The University of Koblenz-Landau (German Universität Koblenz - Landau) is a university located in Koblenz and Landau, Germany. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Radio waves. ... Origin The bee whose scientific designation is Apis mellifera carnica is the sub-species of the Western honeybee that has naturalized and adapted to the Krain region of Slovenia, the Southern part of the Austrian Alps and North Balkan. ... See http://en. ... A portable phone or cordless phone is a wireless telephone which is associated with a fixed telephone landline (POTS) and can only be operated close to (typically less than 100 metres of) its base station, such as in and around the house. ... The electromagnetic field is a physical field that is produced by electrically charged objects and which affects the behaviour of charged objects in the vicinity of the field. ...

The team's 2004 exploratory study on non-thermal effects on learning did not find any change in behavior due to RF exposure from the DECT base station operating at 1880-1900 MHz.^[74]

Many possible biological effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields have been postulated but it is generally accepted that the most significant effects are thermal.^[75] The amount of RF radiation routinely encountered by the general public is too low to produce significant heating or increased body temperature.^[76] Non-ionizing radiation (or, esp. ...

At present the link of either cordless or cellular phones to CCD is entirely speculative, and no research has been done to suggest or demonstrate such a link between the two phenomena. Regardless, such an explanation is not compatible with the historical and present patterns of CCD appearance, which have been intermittent and sudden.

Possible effects

The phenomenon is particularly important for crops such as almond growing in California, where honey bees are the predominant pollinator and the crop value in 2006 was US$1.5 billion. In 2000, the total U.S. crop value that was wholly dependent on honey bee pollination was estimated to exceed US$15 billion.^[77] Binomial name (Mill. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Largest metro area Greater Los Angeles Area  Ranked 3rd  - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 770 miles (1,240 km)  - % water 4. ...

Honey bees are not native to the Americas, therefore their necessity as pollinators in the US is limited to strictly agricultural/ornamental uses, as no native plants require honey bee pollination, except where concentrated in monoculture situations—where the pollination need is so great at bloom time that pollinators must be concentrated beyond the capacity of native bees (with current technology). Monoculture describes systems that have very low diversity. ...

They are responsible for pollination of approximately one third of the United States' crop species, including such species as: almonds, peaches, soybeans, apples, pears, cherries, raspberries, blackberries, cranberries, watermelons, cantaloupes, cucumbers and strawberries. Many but not all of these plants can be (and often are) pollinated by other insects in small holdings in the U.S., including other kinds of bees, but typically not on a commercial scale. While some farmers of a few kinds of native crops do bring in honey bees to help pollinate, none specifically need them, and when honey bees are absent from a region, there is a presumption that native pollinators may reclaim the niche, typically being better adapted to serve those plants (assuming that the plants normally occur in that specific area). Carpenter bee with pollen collected from Night-blooming cereus Pollination is an important step in the reproduction of seed plants: the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) to the plant carpel, the structure that contains the ovule (female gamete). ... Look up crop in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Binomial name (Mill. ... Binomial name (L.) Batsch Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Binomial name (L.) Merr. ... Binomial name Borkh. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Cherry (disambiguation). ... Cultivated raspberries The raspberry (plural, raspberries) is the edible fruit of a number of species of the genus Rubus. ... This article is about the wireless e-mail device. ... Species Vaccinium erythrocarpum Vaccinium macrocarpon Vaccinium microcarpum Vaccinium oxycoccus Approximate ranges of the cranberries in sect. ... For the political designation, see Eco-socialism. ... Trinomial name Cucumis melo cantalupensis Cucumis melo reticulatus Naudin. ... Binomial name L. The cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is a widely cultivated plant in the gourd family Cucurbitaceae, which includes squash, and in the same genus as the muskmelon. ... For other uses, see Strawberry (disambiguation). ...

However, even though on a per-individual basis, many other species are actually more efficient at pollinating, on the 30% of crop types where honey bees are used, most native pollinators cannot be mass-utilized as easily or as effectively as honey bees—in many instances they will not visit the plants at all. Beehives can be moved from crop to crop as needed, and the bees will visit many plants in large numbers, compensating via sheer numbers for what they lack in efficiency. The commercial viability of these crops is therefore strongly tied to the beekeeping industry. Saturation pollination is a pollination technique for agricultural crops that are normally avoided by beekeepers because they do not yield a honey crop, or when bees are used in excess of the number that would be placed near the crop for honey production. ... Beekeeping, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV century) Beekeeping (or apiculture, from Latin apis, a bee) is the practice of intentional maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. ...

Apocryphal quote

A quote that has appeared in many of the news features about CCD is, "If the bee disappears from the surface of the earth, man would have no more than four years to live. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man."

This quote has been attributed to Albert Einstein; however, the original source for this quote has not been reported, and the earliest known use of the quote is from 1994, 39 years after Einstein's death.^[78] “Einstein” redirects here. ...

Remedies

As of March 1, 2007 MAAREC offers the following tentative recommendations for beekeepers noticing the symptoms of CCD:^[51] The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium (MAAREC), established in 1997, is a regional group focused on addressing the pest management crisis facing the beekeeping industry in the Mid-Atlantic Region of the United States[1]. A task force has been established with representation from the departments of agriculture...

1. Do not combine collapsing colonies with strong colonies.
2. When a collapsed colony is found, store the equipment where you can use preventive measures to ensure that bees will not have access to it.
3. If you feed your bees sugar syrup, use Fumagillin.
4. If you are experiencing colony collapse and see a secondary infection, such as European Foulbrood, treat the colonies with Terramycin, not Tylan.

Fumagillin is an antibiotic originally used against fungal Nosema apis infections in honeybees. ... Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... Tetracycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic produced by the streptomyces bacterium, indicated for use against many bacterial infections. ...

See also

• Bees and toxic chemicals
• Diseases of the honey bee
• Pollinator decline
• Pesticide toxicity to bees
• Imidacloprid effects on bee population (This pesticide, while banned in France, has been rapidly increasing in usage in the USA)

An Eastern carpenter bee gathering pollen. ... Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... Pollinator decline is based on observations made at the end of the twentieth century of the reduction in abundance of pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide. ... Pesticides vary in their effect on bees. ... Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide produced by the chemical firm Bayer AG. In France it was sold under the name Gaucho and its use is highly controversial as it is believed to be responsible for high losses in bees. ...

References

For the song by the Thievery Corporation, see Le Monde (song). ... Les Échos is a daily French economics newspaper. ... The Cable News Network, usually referred to as CNN, is a cable television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld [1] [2] (although the latter is not currently recognized in CNNs official history). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The New York Times is a daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed internationally. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 250th day of the year (251st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 250th day of the year (251st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see The Independent (disambiguation). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 82nd day of the year (83rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 114th day of the year (115th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... March 10 is the 69th day of the year (70th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 86th day of the year (87th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... BBC News is the department within the BBC responsible for the corporations news-gathering and production of news programmes on BBC television, radio and online. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 71st day of the year (72nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 116th day of the year (117th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 116th day of the year (117th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 116th day of the year (117th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 116th day of the year (117th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 116th day of the year (117th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 116th day of the year (117th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 126th day of the year (127th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Rue 89 is a French website created by former journalists from Libération. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 116th day of the year (117th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The term ecotoxicology was coined by Truhaut in 1969, who defined it as the branch of Toxicology concerned with the study of toxic effects, caused by natural or synthetic pollutants, to the constituents of ecosystems, animal (including human), vegetable and microbial, in an integral context” (Truhaut, 1977). ... The Journal of Invertebrate Pathology presents original research articles and notes on the induction and pathogenesis of diseases of invertebrates, including the suppression of diseases in beneficial species, and the use of diseases in controlling undesirable species. ... Location of Freiburg in Germany. ... Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg (German Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg ) was founded 1457 in Freiburg by the Habsburgs. ... Todays San Francisco Chronicle was founded in 1865 as The Daily Dramatic Chronicle by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H. de Young. ... PR Newswire is a U.S-based company that is primarily in the business of disseminating corporate news releases to the news media, financial institutions and web sites. ... This just IN !!!:paris hiltons new dog. ... Associated Press logo This article concerns the news service. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 127th day of the year (128th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Whidbey News-Times is a twice-weekly (Wednesday and Saturday) newspaper in Oak Harbor, Washington, USA covering general news on Whidbey Island, WA. It is owned by Sound Publishing Inc. ... The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium (MAAREC), established in 1997, is a regional group focused on addressing the pest management crisis facing the beekeeping industry in the Mid-Atlantic Region of the United States[1]. A task force has been established with representation from the departments of agriculture... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 84th day of the year (85th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 82nd day of the year (83rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 88th day of the year (89th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 84th day of the year (85th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 84th day of the year (85th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... March 26 is the 85th day of the year (86th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 111th day of the year (112th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 80th day of the year (81st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 82nd day of the year (83rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 86th day of the year (87th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... April 27 is the 117th day of the year (118th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 248 days remaining. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 88th day of the year (89th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ... The International Herald Tribune is a widely read English language international newspaper. ... “Cornell” redirects here. ...

External links

Bibliographies

• Colony Collapse Disorder

Journal articles

• (2007-03-16) "Mysterious Bee-Havior". Science 315 (5818): p. 1473. DOI:10.1126/science.315.5818.1473a. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 

Science is the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

News Articles

• Kevin Berger. "Who killed the honeybees?", Salon.com, 2007-05-29. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. 
• Rick Weinzierl. "Neonicotinoids and Honey Bee Colony Collapse Disorder", Illinois Fruit and Vegetable News, 2007-05-10. Vol. 13 , No. 5. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• "Mysterious honeybee killer could make dinner bland", CBS 11, 2007-05-08. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• "Bees Vanish, and Scientists Race for Reasons", New York Times, 2007-04-24. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. “subscription required” 
• Deborah Zabarenko. "Vanishing honeybees mystify scientists", Reuters, 2007-04-22. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• Dan Sorenson. "'Killer bees' seem resistant to disorder", Arizona Daily Star, 2007-03-30. Retrieved on 2007-05-03. 
• Michael Leidig. "Honey bees in US facing extinction", Telegraph, 2007-03-03. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• "Bee vanishing act baffles keepers", BBC News, 2007-02-27. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• Genaro C. Armas. "Mystery Ailment Strikes Honeybees", Washington Post, 2007-02-11. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• "Alarm sounded over bee die-off", Wikinews, 2007-02-10. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• John Finnerty. "Agriculture: Disease Killing Bees", Daily Item, 2007-02-09. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• "NHB Funds Research for “Colony Collapse Disorder”", National Honey Board, 2007-02-05. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
• "Wake Up Call, Colony Collapse Disorder", Backyard Hive. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 

Salon. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 149th day of the year (150th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Reuters Group plc (LSE: RTR and NASDAQ: RTRSY); pronounced is known as a financial market data provider and a news service that provides reports from around the world to newspapers and broadcasters. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Arizona Daily Star is a daily newspaper that serves Tucson, Arizona, and southern Arizona. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 123rd day of the year (124th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Telegraphy (from the Greek words tele = far away and grapho = write) is the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters, originally over wire. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... BBC News is the department within the BBC responsible for the corporations news-gathering and production of news programmes on BBC television, radio and online. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Wikinews is a free-content news source and a project of the Wikimedia Foundation. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Daily Item can refer to: The Daily Item (Sunbury), a newspaper in Sunbury, Pennsylvania The Daily Item (Lynn), a newspaper in Lynn, Massachusetts The Daily Item (Clinton), a former newspaper in Clinton, Massachusetts The Wakefield Daily Item, a newspaper in Wakefield, Massachusetts Category: ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st Century. ... is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Podcasts

• Case Studies and Beekeeper Surveys (m4a, 6.9 MB) (2007-03-19).

Government reports

• Renée Johnson. "Recent Honey Bee Colony Decline", Congressional Research Service Testimony given before 110th Congress, March 26, 2007. 
• May R. Berenbaum. "Colony Collapse Disorder and Pollinator Decline", The National Academies Testimony given before 110th Congress, March 29, 2007. 

The Congressional Research Service is the public policy research arm of the United States Congress. ...

Organizations concerned with CCD

• The American Beekeeping Federation.
• Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium
• National Bee Unit (UK).

The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium (MAAREC), established in 1997, is a regional group focused on addressing the pest management crisis facing the beekeeping industry in the Mid-Atlantic Region of the United States[1]. A task force has been established with representation from the departments of agriculture...

Web pages

• CCD - USDA
• CCD - University of Florida
• Requiem for the Honeybee: Neonicotinoid insecticides used both in sprays and seed dressing may be responsible for the collapse of honeybee colonies. By Prof. Joe Cummins (2007-04-07). Retrieved on 2007-04-26. (study by the British non-governmental 'Institute for Science in Society', who published a short review of the scientific literature on the dying of honey bees and neonicotinoids)